Presenting an integrated human-environment interaction framework through a systematic analysis of environmental stress and relaxation theories

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 PhD Candidate in Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran

2 Associate Professor, Department of Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran,Iran

3 Associate Professor, Department of Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Emotions, as one of the most complex and fundamental dimensions of human experience, have consistently drawn the attention of researchers across various scientific disciplines. Among this diverse spectrum of human affects, stress and tranquility in urban environments stand out as two essential affective experiences that can have profound impacts on individuals. Stress, recognized as a multidimensional and intricate physiological and psychological response, can predispose individuals to a wide array of chronic physical and mental disorders, consequently positioning it as one of the greatest challenges of the current century. In contrast, tranquility, defined as a state of emotional and cognitive balance, plays a significant role in enhancing psychological well-being.
Theories related to environmental stress and tranquility highlight both direct and indirect relationships between the characteristics of the physical environment and the intensity of stress or tranquility experienced, thereby positioning urban design as a key factor in controlling and reducing these emotional responses. However, despite the importance of this issue, a significant portion of the existing theories and approaches in the literature have examined these concepts separately, with relatively few attempts made to integrate them into a comprehensive and systematic framework. In this context, the present research seeks to analyze and integrate theories related to environmental stress and tranquility and develop a multi-layered conceptual framework that can systematically explain the complexities of human-environment interactions. The study adopts a systematic approach and employs analytical and deductive methods. The process began with a targeted search for data in reputable domestic and international scientific databases from 1960 to 2024, using keywords such as "stress theories," "environmental stress," "tranquility theories," "psychological models of stress and tranquility," "urban stress," and "environmental tranquility" to ensure broad coverage of historical and contemporary sources. Following the identification of initial sources, relevant and reputable scholarly articles and documents were selected and reviewed.
The theory screening process was designed based on the PRISMA framework, with the stages adapted to focus specifically on theories. This process initially identified 35 key theories. Subsequently, by applying exclusion criteria (such as non-environmental theories, occupational/organizational models, bio-physiological approaches, and individual-focused clinical approaches) and inclusion criteria (theories related to artificial or natural environments and their impact on stress or tranquility), 14 core theories that were most aligned with the research objective were selected. The final analysis was structured around two key axes: "Environmental Stimuli Affecting Stress and Tranquility" and "Responses Stemming from Emotional Experiences." This categorization aligns with the theoretical logic of Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model, namely "Stimulus → Emotion → Outcome," facilitating the organization of fragmented literature into a new conceptual structure.
The findings demonstrate that stress and tranquility, as two points on a single emotional continuum, are shaped by a combination of environmental and individual factors. Environmental stimuli, which include both objective and subjective spatial characteristics, can be categorized into four general domains: Social (social cohesion, exclusion, social interactions, crowding and population density, and social security); Environmental-Ecological (climatic comfort, air, noise, and olfactory pollution, and natural elements); Functional (density and accessibility, safety/security, land-use mix, and flexibility); and Perceptual-Aesthetic (legibility, visual complexity and clutter, scale and proportions, and materiality and craftsmanship). The emotional intensity and direction of these factors are moderated by individual characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, socioeconomic status, cultural background, and mental health. For example, some individuals may feel tranquil in loud and crowded environments, while for others, these same environments may be considered stressors. Therefore, the human-environment relationship is not solely determined by the physical and objective features of the environment but is also significantly influenced by individual differences in shaping one's emotional experience of the environment.
The consequences of exposure to stressful or tranquil environments manifest simultaneously across three distinct levels: Physiological, Cognitive, and Behavioral. Physiologically, exposure to stressful environments leads to hyperactivation of the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, triggering the secretion of stress hormones such as cortisol and is associated with increased blood pressure, heart rate, and hormonal activity. In contrast, well-designed environments facilitate the recovery and dominance of the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), thus aiding in the maintenance of physiological balance through the activation of regulatory systems, ultimately leading to mental tranquility. Cognitively, stress increases processing load and attentional fatigue, reducing the capacity for concentration, while tranquil environments can restore cognitive capacities through factors such as novelty, coherence, and visual appeal. Behaviorally, stress typically manifests as avoidance, restricted presence, and reduced social interaction, whereas tranquility encourages greater interaction and active presence.
Based on this integration of relevant theories, human-environment interaction can be organized into a four-layer framework. The first layer, "Environment and Environmental Stimuli," constitutes the main input of the model and includes the four identified domains, acting as the source layer initiating emotional arousal. The second layer, the "Individual Difference Filter," acts as an active mediator between environmental stimuli (Layer 1) and the affective experience (Layer 3); individual differences filter the environment, shaping the individual's subjective appraisal. The third layer, the "Stress-Tranquility Affective Continuum," represents the output of the interaction between Layers 1 and 2, positioned at a specific point on this continuum (from intense stress to deep tranquility), and emphasizes the variable nature and intensity of emotional arousal. The fourth layer, "Multi-Level Responses and Outcomes," illustrates the consequences of the affective experience (Layer 3) across the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral domains, which directly impact the individual's health and well-being and ultimately provide feedback for future individual-environment interactions.
The research results, while emphasizing emotional fluidity, suggest that creating spaces with appropriate affective experiences can be achieved through steps such as Stimuli Identification (determining spatial stressors and tranquilizers), User and Context Analysis (understanding individual differences and the coping capacities of the target community, with an emphasis on moderating factors), Measurement of Emotion and Spatial Behavior, and Spatial Modification. In conclusion, the proposed framework provides specific and measurable criteria for assessing the current state, comparing design scenarios, and focusing on key factors by highlighting the different levels of emotional outcomes, thus streamlining the initial assessment process and facilitating evidence-based decision-making for improved environmental design.

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References

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