https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/ Journal of Architecture and Urban Planning en daily 1 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1506.html Emotions, as one of the most complex and fundamental dimensions of human experience, have consistently drawn the attention of researchers across various scientific disciplines. Among this diverse spectrum of human affects, stress and tranquility in urban environments stand out as two essential affective experiences that can have profound impacts on individuals. Stress, recognized as a multidimensional and intricate physiological and psychological response, can predispose individuals to a wide array of chronic physical and mental disorders, consequently positioning it as one of the greatest challenges of the current century. In contrast, tranquility, defined as a state of emotional and cognitive balance, plays a significant role in enhancing psychological well-being. Theories related to environmental stress and tranquility highlight both direct and indirect relationships between the characteristics of the physical environment and the intensity of stress or tranquility experienced, thereby positioning urban design as a key factor in controlling and reducing these emotional responses. However, despite the importance of this issue, a significant portion of the existing theories and approaches in the literature have examined these concepts separately, with relatively few attempts made to integrate them into a comprehensive and systematic framework. In this context, the present research seeks to analyze and integrate theories related to environmental stress and tranquility and develop a multi-layered conceptual framework that can systematically explain the complexities of human-environment interactions. The study adopts a systematic approach and employs analytical and deductive methods. The process began with a targeted search for data in reputable domestic and international scientific databases from 1960 to 2024, using keywords such as "stress theories," "environmental stress," "tranquility theories," "psychological models of stress and tranquility," "urban stress," and "environmental tranquility" to ensure broad coverage of historical and contemporary sources. Following the identification of initial sources, relevant and reputable scholarly articles and documents were selected and reviewed. The theory screening process was designed based on the PRISMA framework, with the stages adapted to focus specifically on theories. This process initially identified 35 key theories. Subsequently, by applying exclusion criteria (such as non-environmental theories, occupational/organizational models, bio-physiological approaches, and individual-focused clinical approaches) and inclusion criteria (theories related to artificial or natural environments and their impact on stress or tranquility), 14 core theories that were most aligned with the research objective were selected. The final analysis was structured around two key axes: "Environmental Stimuli Affecting Stress and Tranquility" and "Responses Stemming from Emotional Experiences." This categorization aligns with the theoretical logic of Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model, namely "Stimulus → Emotion → Outcome," facilitating the organization of fragmented literature into a new conceptual structure. The findings demonstrate that stress and tranquility, as two points on a single emotional continuum, are shaped by a combination of environmental and individual factors. Environmental stimuli, which include both objective and subjective spatial characteristics, can be categorized into four general domains: Social (social cohesion, exclusion, social interactions, crowding and population density, and social security); Environmental-Ecological (climatic comfort, air, noise, and olfactory pollution, and natural elements); Functional (density and accessibility, safety/security, land-use mix, and flexibility); and Perceptual-Aesthetic (legibility, visual complexity and clutter, scale and proportions, and materiality and craftsmanship). The emotional intensity and direction of these factors are moderated by individual characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, socioeconomic status, cultural background, and mental health. For example, some individuals may feel tranquil in loud and crowded environments, while for others, these same environments may be considered stressors. Therefore, the human-environment relationship is not solely determined by the physical and objective features of the environment but is also significantly influenced by individual differences in shaping one's emotional experience of the environment. The consequences of exposure to stressful or tranquil environments manifest simultaneously across three distinct levels: Physiological, Cognitive, and Behavioral. Physiologically, exposure to stressful environments leads to hyperactivation of the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, triggering the secretion of stress hormones such as cortisol and is associated with increased blood pressure, heart rate, and hormonal activity. In contrast, well-designed environments facilitate the recovery and dominance of the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), thus aiding in the maintenance of physiological balance through the activation of regulatory systems, ultimately leading to mental tranquility. Cognitively, stress increases processing load and attentional fatigue, reducing the capacity for concentration, while tranquil environments can restore cognitive capacities through factors such as novelty, coherence, and visual appeal. Behaviorally, stress typically manifests as avoidance, restricted presence, and reduced social interaction, whereas tranquility encourages greater interaction and active presence. Based on this integration of relevant theories, human-environment interaction can be organized into a four-layer framework. The first layer, "Environment and Environmental Stimuli," constitutes the main input of the model and includes the four identified domains, acting as the source layer initiating emotional arousal. The second layer, the "Individual Difference Filter," acts as an active mediator between environmental stimuli (Layer 1) and the affective experience (Layer 3); individual differences filter the environment, shaping the individual's subjective appraisal. The third layer, the "Stress-Tranquility Affective Continuum," represents the output of the interaction between Layers 1 and 2, positioned at a specific point on this continuum (from intense stress to deep tranquility), and emphasizes the variable nature and intensity of emotional arousal. The fourth layer, "Multi-Level Responses and Outcomes," illustrates the consequences of the affective experience (Layer 3) across the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral domains, which directly impact the individual's health and well-being and ultimately provide feedback for future individual-environment interactions. The research results, while emphasizing emotional fluidity, suggest that creating spaces with appropriate affective experiences can be achieved through steps such as Stimuli Identification (determining spatial stressors and tranquilizers), User and Context Analysis (understanding individual differences and the coping capacities of the target community, with an emphasis on moderating factors), Measurement of Emotion and Spatial Behavior, and Spatial Modification. In conclusion, the proposed framework provides specific and measurable criteria for assessing the current state, comparing design scenarios, and focusing on key factors by highlighting the different levels of emotional outcomes, thus streamlining the initial assessment process and facilitating evidence-based decision-making for improved environmental design. https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1494.html Urban regeneration of deteriorated and aging neighborhoods, undertaken with the objectives of improving urban services, enhancing infrastructure, and reconstructing the physical and spatial fabric of local areas, can simultaneously generate both positive developmental outcomes and unintended socio-spatial consequences. Although such projects are designed to revitalize declining urban environments, increases the quality of life, and stimulate public and private investment, they often produce significant side effects, including rising housing prices and rents, increasing costs of goods and services, and the gradual decline of affordability for vulnerable social groups. The cumulative result of these processes is the phenomenon of gentrification—a complex and multidimensional social and spatial transformation that displaces lower-income households and replaces them with middle- and upper-income groups, thereby reshaping the social composition, economic dynamics, and physical structure of neighborhoods. This study specifically investigates the spatial patterns of gentrification in District 10 of Tehran and aims to identify the key driving forces shaping and sustaining it. To achieve this objective, a two-stage mixed-method methodological framework was adopted. In the first stage, District 10—identified based on 2021 spatial data from the Tehran Municipality’s Information and Communication Technology Organization as one of the districts with the highest proportion of urban regeneration relative to its total area—was selected for detailed neighborhood-level analysis. Quantitative spatial analysis and the ELECTRE multi-criteria decision-making method were applied to identify neighborhoods exhibiting the most prominent indicators of gentrification across social, economic, and physical dimensions. At this stage, a conceptual model guided the analytical process. Drawing on theoretical literature, this model conceptualizes gentrification as the outcome of interactions among neighborhood deterioration, public-sector interventions, and housing market dynamics. According to the model, the physical decay of inefficient neighborhoods compels public authorities to intervene to improve infrastructure and urban quality. However, when such interventions occur without simultaneous enhancement of the livelihood and economic capacity of low-income residents, they exert pressure on both the supply and demand sides of the housing market. On the supply side, long-term residents—whose land or properties have gained higher value after regeneration—tend to sell their assets to capitalize on increased property values. On the demand side, wealthier groups, particularly the new middle class seeking to reside in centrally located areas with upgraded infrastructure and convenient access to urban networks, are drawn into these neighborhoods. The interaction of these forces—reinforced by municipal incentive policies and market-oriented approaches—results in physical renewal without social equity, ultimately driving the process of gentrification. The quantitative results revealed that the most and least pronounced signs of gentrification were observed in the Salsabil and Hashemi neighborhoods, respectively. To enhance the validity and reliability of the quantitative findings, systematic interviews and consultations were conducted with local informants possessing deep knowledge of neighborhood transformations. From an economic perspective, almost all informants confirmed significant increases in rent and housing prices in the Salsabil, Karun, Imam Khomeini, and Mortezaei neighborhoods compared to others in District 10. The main factors influencing this trend included favorable access to urban transportation networks, proximity to employment and service centers, and the construction of small housing units that have made these areas attractive to new population groups, particularly young couples and office employees. Although the available data and methods used in this study do not allow for a precise assessment of the economic status of all new residents, land prices—as a proxy for income level—indicate that, overall, newcomers are relatively more affluent. In terms of neighborhood security and social well-being, informants reported a moderate decline in street disputes and local conflicts, but no definitive evidence of structural change in crime levels was found. In the second stage, qualitative research was conducted to interpret, contextualize, and deepen the understanding of the mechanisms driving gentrification in the selected neighborhoods. Semi-structured interviews were held with experienced experts from the Tehran Urban Regeneration Organization, urban planners from local development offices in District 10, and academic scholars specializing in urban renewal and socio-spatial dynamics. The qualitative data were systematically analyzed through thematic analysis using MAXQDA software, enabling the identification and categorization of forces influencing gentrification in the Salsabil, Imam Khomeini, Karun, and Mortezaei neighborhoods. Findings from this stage indicate that the driving forces of gentrification operate across three interrelated analytical levels. At the macro level, urban regeneration and renewal policies in Tehran have been accompanied by increased housing demand, price escalation, and displacement of lower-income groups. At the meso level, urban planning strategies, municipal policies, and institutional renewal programs implemented by local authorities directly affect the scope, direction, and pace of neighborhood transformation. Without due consideration of socio-economic factors, these have acted as catalysts of gentrification, leading to rising property values and an influx of new middle-class residents. At the micro level, neighborhood-specific factors such as social composition, household economic resilience, and accessibility to transportation and commercial networks shape the intensity and spatial patterns of gentrification. The findings further demonstrate the combined role of supply and demand factors in accelerating the gentrification process. On the supply side, investment flows and market-oriented housing policies have driven property value growth and redevelopment; on the demand side, locational preferences of the new middle class and improved accessibility have intensified the process. In District 10, central location, relatively lower housing prices, and the feasibility of constructing small residential units have been the key drivers attracting new social groups. Incentive-based density bonuses, provision of financial facilities, and administrative ease in building permit issuance have reinforced a pattern of continuous and incremental regeneration. Additionally, the study identifies several structural characteristics unique to District 10 that distinguish its gentrification pattern from other urban cases—namely, a high proportion of indigenous homeowners, a well-organized street network, and strong inter-district connectivity—which together have shaped a distinctive pattern of investment attraction and population replacement. Finally, it is recommended that future research, if supported by detailed data on population displacement, should examine the social and spatial impacts of gentrification at the neighborhood scale. Comparative analyses of conditions and influencing forces in other Tehran districts exhibiting signs of gentrification could further contribute to understanding the diverse and context-dependent manifestations of this phenomenon across the city. https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1479.html Theoretical and normative frameworks of urban planning posit citizen participation as a foundational mechanism for legitimizing public decision-making, enhancing policy efficacy, and redistributing political power. Seminal models, such as Arnstein's ladder of citizen participation, conceptualize engagement as a gradient of citizen control, yet the operationalization of these principles, particularly within the socio-political contexts of many global south countries, remains profoundly challenging. Tehran, Iran's capital, exemplifies this discrepancy, where extant participatory structures appear decoupled from substantive citizen influence. This study interrogates this disconnect by focusing on the perceptions of youth as a cohort whose political participation and future stake in the city render their perspectives critically salient, especially considering their demographic significance. The research aims to critically diagnose the state of urban governance in Tehran through the dual lenses of youth perception and managerial insight, thereby mapping the contours of the city's participatory deficit in a comprehensive manner.This inquiry is conceptually grounded in the paradigm of "governance", which transcends the conventional focus on state institutions ("government") to encompass the complex networks of actors and processes through which societal decisions are formulated and implemented. In this broader understanding, governance highlights the cooperative, negotiated, and often contested interactions among diverse public, private, and civic entities. To introduce a normative evaluative dimension, the analysis employs the framework of "good governance." This framework is operationalized through its core principles, as delineated by international institutions (e.g., UNDP, World Bank): participation: the inclusive involvement of citizens in decision-making processes. Rule of Law: The impartial application of a transparent legal framework. Transparency: The unimpeded access to information pertinent to public decisions. Accountability and Responsiveness: The obligation of decision-makers to justify their actions and respond to citizen concerns. Consensus orientation: The mediation of diverse interests to achieve collective agreement. Equity & Inclusiveness: The assurance that all societal groups benefit from development. Effectiveness and Efficiency: The optimal utilization of resources to achieve stated policy objectives. The study's conceptual model posits these principles not as discrete variables, but as dynamically interrelated components of a systemic whole. Participation is theorized as both a prerequisite for and an outcome of effective governance, embedded in a recursive relationship with factors such as trust, institutional legitimacy, and civic capacity, all of which interact continuously in shaping public life.A sequential mixed-methods research design  (first quantitative and later qualitative phase) was deployed to facilitate explanatory breadth. The investigation is characterized as applied and descriptive in nature. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey instrument from a sample of 311 Tehrani residents aged 18–32, recruited via digital platforms, including WhatsApp, Telegram, Instagram, and LinkedIn. The questionnaire employed 5-point Likert scales to quantify respondent perceptions across fifteen variables derived from the good governance framework (e.g., transparency, corruption, legitimacy, and willingness to participate). Additionally, we conducted twelve semi-structured interviews with a purposively selected cohort of current and former senior urban executives and elected officials in Tehran (e.g., former mayors, city council members). These interviews, with an average duration of 46 minutes, were subjected to a thematic analysis to identify root causes of youths’ negative perception of governance in Tehran, the challenges, and potential remedies. Data analysis entailed descriptive statistics and inferential methods, including Pearson's correlation, to examine variable relationships and spatial differentiations across five primary geographical zones of the metropolis, offering a fine-grained portrayal of intra-urban disparities.The triangulation of qualitative and quantitative data yields a consistent diagnosis of systemic governance failure. Survey results indicate a pronounced negative perception of good governance principles among the youth participants. Mean scores for critical variables—Transparency (M=1.83), Rule of Law (M=1.77), Accountability (M=1.93), and Justice (M=1.86)—cluster significantly below the scale midpoint, indicating a consensus of deficiency and chronic institutional shortcomings. The perception of corruption (M=4.53) was acutely high. In stark contrast, the variables Willingness to Participate (M=3.61) and Sense of Citizenship (M=3.56) scored above average, revealing a critical paradox: high civic potential coexists with profoundly negative evaluations of the governing apparatus. Geospatial analysis revealed statistically significant inter-zonal variances. For instance, perceptions of transparency were marginally higher in the northern districts, while perceptions of justice and rule of law were most negative in the central and western parts of the city, respectively. Southern district respondents reported the highest willingness to participate alongside the lowest scores for efficacy and public interest consideration. Furthermore, correlation analysis identified a significant negative relationship between educational attainment and perceptions of transparency (r = -0.190, p = 0.001), justice (r = -0.133, p = 0.021), and legitimacy (r = -0.142, p = 0.015), suggesting that greater cognitive resources correlate with more critical appraisal of institutional performance and heightened awareness of governance shortcomings.Analysis of managerial interviews corroborated the quantitative findings and provided a diagnostic narrative. The data elucidate a self-reinforcing vicious cycle of governance dysfunction: a foundational lack of institutional transparency and entrenched corruption subverts the rule of law and equitable resource distribution (justice). These deficits directly precipitate a severe erosion of public trust in municipal institutions. The resulting climate of cynicism and powerlessness suppresses authentic citizen engagement, reducing participation to perfunctory or tokenistic forms. The absence of civic oversight and input consequently undermines the legitimacy of public decisions and degrades administrative efficiency and effectiveness, thereby reinforcing the initial structural deficits. Interviewees consistently emphasized that these issues are not episodic but deeply systemic, rooted in longstanding institutional cultures.In conclusion, the state of citizen participation in Tehran is not merely weak; it is structurally exacerbated by a self-perpetuating cycle of governance failure. Empirical evidence underscores a profound disconnect: the latent potential of youth civic motivation is systematically nullified by the perceived institutional rigidity, opacity, and unaccountability. The findings challenge the assumption that participatory will spontaneously translate into participatory action in the absence of credible and receptive institutional channels. The direct policy implication of this research is that urban management must regard the high governance literacy and participatory inclination of educated youth not as a threat, but as a social and intellectual capital. To prevent this capital from lying dormant or being misdirected, it is necessary to design new institutional mechanisms that can absorb and channel this capacity. The ultimate goal is to transform informed critique into co-creation within the decision-making process and to restore trust through institutionalized accountability. https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1445.html Despite being inherently associated with creativity and innovation, the design process frequently confronts designers with cognitive challenges that constrain their ability to generate original, diverse, and meaningful solutions. Among these challenges, design fixation has been widely recognized as a persistent phenomenon that limits exploratory thinking and narrows the perceived design space. Design fixation refers to a tendency to adhere to initial ideas, familiar precedents, or previously encountered solutions, making it difficult to recognize or pursue alternative possibilities. Rather than constituting a simple mistake or momentary lapse, fixation operates as a multi-layered cognitive condition that shapes the trajectory of design thinking across different stages of the process. In design practice, creativity is commonly understood as the capacity to produce ideas that are novel, useful, and appropriate to the design context. Innovation, in this sense, is not an optional attribute but a defining criterion of successful design. Yet designers often experience moments of mental stagnation, repetition, or premature convergence, particularly during the early phases of ideation. Design fixation typically emerges at this stage, manifesting either as an uncritical reliance on known solutions or as an inability to move beyond an initial conceptual frame. This dual manifestation suggests that fixation is not a singular cognitive bias but a structured interaction between memory, habit, professional knowledge, and situational constraints. Building on this premise, the present study offers a conceptual and structural reconsideration of design fixation through a systematic and critical review of the existing literature. Although fixation has been examined across design research, engineering, and cognitive psychology, it remains theoretically fragmented and inconsistently operationalized. Prior studies often focus on isolated aspects of the phenomenon—such as experimental measurement, impacts on originality, or specific intervention techniques—leaving the conceptual boundaries, internal variations, and evaluative standards of fixation insufficiently clarified. Accordingly, this research addresses three foundational research questions: How is design fixation defined, and through what characteristics does it manifest within the design process? What classifications or typologies of design fixation have been proposed in the literature? What criteria, indicators, or methods are used to identify and evaluate fixation in design contexts? To ensure methodological rigor and transparency, the review follows the PRISMA 2020 framework, enabling a structured selection and synthesis of relevant studies. The literature is analyzed along three interrelated axes: conceptual understandings of fixation, typological classifications, and evaluative criteria. This structure allows for an integrated reading of diverse sources while preserving the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon. The findings indicate that design fixation can be productively understood through two complementary analytical lenses. The first lens is grounded in cognitive psychology and draws on concepts such as functional fixedness, mental set, and the path of least resistance, framing fixation as a cognitive constraint rooted in prior knowledge and habitual reasoning patterns. The second lens focuses on observable patterns within the design process itself and conceptualizes fixation as a form of design behavior. This behavioral perspective identifies modes such as unconscious adherence to familiar solutions, conscious blockage in idea generation, and intentional resistance to departing from established design directions. Although analytically distinct, these perspectives frequently overlap in practice. Fixation often emerges at the intersection of cognitive bias, memory structures, and professional habit, rather than from a single causal mechanism. Recognizing this overlap allows fixation to be analyzed not merely as an individual limitation but as a situated phenomenon shaped by design culture, education, and representational practices. Integrating psychological and design-oriented perspectives therefore provides a more nuanced understanding of how fixation develops and persists in real design situations. In addressing the third research question, the review identifies two primary categories of evaluative criteria used to recognize and assess design fixation. Direct criteria focus on measurable features of design outcomes, such as the frequency of repeated formal or functional elements, levels of concept originality, and degrees of functional or typological variety. These criteria are commonly employed in experimental and semi-experimental studies. Indirect criteria, by contrast, include self-assessment instruments, behavioral observations, retrospective reflections, and non-intrusive analytical methods. While indirect measures may lack the precision of direct metrics, they offer valuable insight into designers’ internal reasoning processes and the experiential dimensions of fixation. Together, these criteria provide a foundation for both identifying fixation and evaluating the effectiveness of proposed interventions. Based on a synthesis of prior studies, particularly those employing semi-experimental and research-through-design approaches, the research identifies three strategic paths for mitigating design fixation. Internal strategies aim to enhance designers’ cognitive flexibility through techniques such as problem reframing, deliberate incubation, and reflective pauses. External strategies reshape the design environment by introducing varied stimuli, representational diversity, analogical reasoning, critique-based practices, and computational tools that expand the design space. Hybrid strategies integrate internal and external elements within structured, multi-step methods such as SCAMPER and TRIZ, enabling intentional shifts between different modes of thinking and supporting reflective engagement with the design process. A key contribution of this study lies in its multi-layered characterization of design fixation, which connects conceptual clarity with practical relevance. By synthesizing cognitive and behavioral classifications, distinguishing between direct and indirect evaluative criteria, and organizing responses into internal, external, and hybrid strategies, the research frames fixation as an organized and analyzable process rather than an arbitrary obstacle to creativity. Importantly, the findings suggest that fixation should not be understood solely as a negative condition to be eliminated. Instead, fixation can be viewed as an indicator of stabilized cognitive patterns through which designers reuse knowledge and construct meaning. From this perspective, fixation offers analytical value for understanding how design thinking develops over time and how it may be guided through targeted interventions. In conclusion, by situating design fixation at the intersection of cognitive habit, design culture, and educational frameworks, this study contributes to a more transferable understanding of creative constraints in design processes. The proposed synthesis provides a conceptual foundation for developing diagnostic markers, reflective design techniques, and instructional tools. Future research may extend this work through empirical analyses of situated design behavior, refinement of evaluative indicators, and the design of educational interventions aimed at fostering reflective, flexible, and critically aware design thinking. https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1505.html Seeing isn’t everything when visiting cities shaped by constant weather patterns. Instead of occasional shifts, some places live under steady atmospheric influence - this changes how people move, feel, not just look around. Take Rasht: northern Iran’s rainy hub, where old building styles grew out of damp surroundings. There, travel moments involve touch, sound, even smell - not only sight. Yet most studies on tourism fixate on landmarks, ignoring wetness as anything more than an obstacle. Architecture writings too often skip how moisture interacts with design to shape feeling. Here lies the focus: rainfall, working alongside local structures, helps form deeper visitor encounters rooted in body awareness, mood, heritage.What stood out first was how deeply personal each story felt. Instead of counting numbers, the work focused on understanding what traveling to Rasht truly meant for those who had been there multiple times. People joined after being selected deliberately - only if they’d visited more than once. Their accounts carried weight because time spent shaped their views. Some were young, others older; jobs varied widely, as did where they lived when not in Rasht. A total of nineteen voices made up the group. One thing kept guiding decisions: stopping only when nothing fresh emerged anymore. Repetition signaled depth, not redundancy. By then, recurring themes ran clearly through every last interview. Each interview ran up to an hour and a quarter, unfolding through open-ended questions about how people sense rain, move within rainy environments, experience built forms during downpours, and attach social significance to wet weather. Transcripts were made of every session, ensuring spoken words stayed intact for analysis. Alongside these texts, observations taken during meetings helped preserve nuances like mood shifts or gestures tied to specific moments. Insights emerged gradually, shaped by pauses, emphasis, and background details noted at the time.Beginning with careful readings, data work unfolded through reflexive thematic methods focused on meaning, not just how often things appeared. From transcripts, 237 distinct codes emerged by hand, shaped slowly across repeated passes. Grouping these revealed early patterns, later fine-tuned into broader themes via ongoing contrast and thoughtfulness. Instead of standing alone, human judgment guided each stage, while small-scale digital checks - like term emphasis and group consistency - offered quiet backing without steering conclusions.A closer look uncovered three linked ideas shaping how visitors engage with Rasht when it rains. Rain, rather than just weather, became something felt through multiple senses at once. Sounds stood out - drops hitting wood and stone made repeating patterns some found soothing. Smells also played a role: damp earth and greenery gave the air a distinct character. People noticed moisture against their skin, subtle yet persistent. Light changed too, bouncing off wet surfaces, blurring edges, wrapping streets in haze. Together, these details pulled individuals into quieter, more reflective moments. Movement slowed, and attention gradually shifted inward toward personal reflection and heightened sensory awareness. The city felt less like a place to pass through, more like one to inhabit deeply.Despite the downpour, people kept moving through the city thanks to design choices rooted in local tradition. Sloping rooftops often appeared, guiding water away while creating space underneath for walking. Extended eaves stretched outward, shielding pathways without blocking views or sounds of falling rain. Verandas and covered walkways showed up repeatedly, acting like buffers between inside and outside worlds. Instead of hiding from wet weather, visitors stayed engaged - seeing, hearing, feeling the storm at arm’s length. Sheltered yet exposed, they remained part of the moment rather than removed from it. Rain became something handled quietly by structure, not fought against. Movement did not stop; rhythm continued. Comfort emerged not from staying dry alone - but from being able to stay present.One way people saw rain was through culture, tying it closely to who they are and where they belong. Not just weather - rain stood out as something that defined Rasht for those involved. Memories formed around wet days; stories grew from damp streets. It marked belonging, shaped how journeys were recalled. Life in the north carried rhythm, linked to falling drops, seen as part of daily living. Thoughts about fresh beginnings, steady cycles, balance with surroundings - all surfaced when discussing rainfall. This connection deepened ties to the location, made visits stick in mind longer. Feelings for the city strengthened because of such moments. More than climate data, rain turned into shared symbol - lived in minds, repeated in tales. Meaning built up over time gave it weight beyond forecast reports.Layered experiences emerge when sight, touch, and memory interact within built spaces shaped by tradition. Although rain often carries negative associations, thoughtful design turns it into a meaningful part of place identity. Instead of treating weather as a constraint, local building methods show how environments become more vivid through seasonal rhythms. This research adds depth to tourism studies by focusing on bodily engagement, not just visual appeal. Rather than generic solutions, heritage structures provide clues about living well in wet climates. Urban designers might look closely at such examples when shaping places where culture, comfort, and context align naturally.The study makes an additional contribution to the body of research by transforming the concept of climate in urban tourism research as an experiential asset instead of a background condition. By using the concept of rain in a relational way with atmosphere, architecture, and the body, the study shows how constancy in the environment, instead of monotony, can cultivate depth. In the case of Rasht, and in the case of other places with the same condition, the design, in a culturally appropriate way, and unchanging climatic conditions, can create a feeling of familiarity, anticipation, and emotional layering, even in a place where the weather changes from one visit to another. All of this clarifies the role of multisensory in place designing and in urban tourism. Finally, the study places vernacular design as an adaptive system, rather than as a heritage to be preserved. https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1509.html This study undertakes a typological and comparative analysis of residential façades from the Qajar and Pahlavi periods in Sanandaj, Iran, aiming to identify the spatial, structural, and aesthetic patterns that have shaped the visual identity of the city's historic fabric. Positioned at the intersection of architectural history and contemporary design discourse, the research documents formal transformations across two historical periods and interprets them as reflections of broader socio-cultural and spatial shifts. It also proposes a framework for reinterpreting extracted identity-forming patterns within contemporary architectural practice, contributing to context-sensitive design strategies and dynamic urban conservation. Sanandaj, a historically significant city in western Iran, possesses a distinctive architectural heritage shaped by regional traditions and political transformations. During the Qajar period, residential architecture was predominantly introverted, organized around private courtyards and governed by spatial hierarchies. The subsequent Pahlavi period, influenced by modernization policies and new planning paradigms, introduced transformations in spatial organization and façade articulation. This transition offers a valuable case for examining how architectural identity evolves under cultural continuity and socio-political change. The research adopts a qualitative, descriptive-analytical methodology. Data were collected through library and archival research, field documentation, architectural drawings, photographic analysis, and semi-structured interviews. The study examines 35 purposefully selected houses from the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, chosen for their representativeness and architectural integrity. The analytical framework focuses on façade composition, spatial hierarchy, semi-open elements, materiality, ornamental language, geometric proportions, and the relationship between the building envelope and the urban realm. The findings reveal that historic residential façades in Sanandaj are structured around recurring identity-forming patterns. In the Qajar period, particularly in courtyard-facing façades, a layered spatial organization appears through deep columned verandas (Iwans), articulated openings, rhythmic fenestration, and ornamental detailing. These façades function not merely as decoration but as spatial thresholds between private and semi-private domains. Depth, shadow, and textural variation create an architectural expression that reinforces privacy, climatic adaptation, and familial cohesion. Native materials such as handmade brick, timber, and local stone embed these façades within the environmental and cultural context of the region. By contrast, the Pahlavi period marks a shift toward outward-oriented façades engaging more directly with the street. Corresponding to modernization processes, façades become flatter and simplified, hierarchical entrance sequences are reduced, and decorative elements are abstracted into geometric patterns. The transition from handmade to industrial materials further contributes to visual simplification. The complex layering of Qajar façades gradually gives way to planar compositions emphasizing clarity and directness. The research identifies three façade typologies articulating the architectural evolution of Sanandaj's residential fabric: the Qajar courtyard-oriented model with deep Iwans and layered surfaces; the Pahlavi model with flat street façades and simplified ornamentation; and a transitional hybrid model emerging in the late Qajar and early Pahlavi periods. This hybrid condition combines inward courtyard structures with outward-facing elements such as balconies or enlarged windows. Rather than a rupture, it represents an adaptive phase where traditional spatial logic coexists with new urban demands. The study interprets these transformations through a socio-spatial lens. The shift from introverted to extroverted façades reflects changes in domestic life and urban interaction. The deep Iwans of Qajar houses transform into shallower balconies functioning primarily as a visual interface with the public realm. Hierarchical entrance systems diminish in favor of direct entryways aligned with modern street grids. These changes signal a recalibration of privacy and architectural representation within the urban environment. Importantly, the research does not privilege one period over the other but views the evolution as a continuum of adaptation. The hybrid typology demonstrates how architectural identity can transform without discontinuity. The extracted patterns provide guidelines for context-sensitive intervention. In conclusion, the comparative analysis of Qajar and Pahlavi residential façades in Sanandaj reveals a process of transformation shaped by spatial and cultural factors. By identifying three typologies and adaptable identity-forming patterns, the research bridges historical analysis and contemporary design strategy, offering a pathway for reinforcing Sanandaj's urban identity amid ongoing development.