Iran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222Developing a patient satisfaction model in hospitals based on an evidence-based design (EBD) approachDeveloping a patient satisfaction model in hospitals based on an evidence-based design (EBD) approach530146510.30480/aup.2025.5578.2199FAAidaSadeghiPhD Candidate in Architecture, Department of Architecture, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, IranAzadehShahcheraghiAssociate Professor, Department of Architecture, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, IranKhosroDaneshjooAssociate Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Arts, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranSeyed BehshidHosseiniProfessor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, IranJournal Article20241118Despite their essential role in providing medical care and saving lives, most hospitals have inadvertently created environments that are often uncomfortable and unpleasant for patients and staff. Patients who are in a vulnerable physical and mental state are often forced to spend their sick days in spaces that lack warmth, comfort, and a sense of calm. Similarly, employees such as doctors, nurses, and other medical personnel are often expected to perform their demanding tasks in stressful and poorly designed environments that do not support their physical and mental health. The main reason for this is the neglect of fundamental human-centered concepts during the architectural design and construction processes of hospitals and healthcare facilities. Given the principle that the desirability of any architectural space is largely determined by the satisfaction of its users; in the case of hospitals, user satisfaction includes patients and staff who interact with the built environment on a daily basis. An individual's satisfaction with a particular environment depends on the extent to which that space meets their personal, social, emotional, and functional needs. When these needs are ignored or inadequately addressed, users experience discomfort, stress, and a general sense of dissatisfaction that can directly impact patient recovery and staff job performance. Several interrelated factors contribute to the negative experiences commonly associated with hospital environments:
The first and perhaps most fundamental issue is the overemphasis on the technological aspects of hospitals during the design process. In most cases, architectural planning is influenced by priorities for treatment modalities, the placement of medical equipment, and the organization of clinical relationships between functional spaces. While these are undoubtedly important, the resulting environments often feel sterile, impersonal, and intimidating, leaving little room for emotional comfort or human connection. The second major issue is the passive role assigned to patients in the hospital environment. Patients are often seen as objects of treatment, not as active participants in their own recovery journey. This passivity limits their sense of control and autonomy, which in turn increases anxiety and reduces the effectiveness of the recovery process. Hospital spatial design rarely empowers patients or gives them the opportunity to positively interact with their surroundings. The third reason for the poor state of many hospital spaces is the existence of fixed, outdated ideas about what a hospital should look and feel like. Decision-makers, policymakers, and designers often rely on traditional, inflexible mental models that resist change, innovation, and adaptation to modern scientific findings about environmental psychology and healing design. This stagnation perpetuates environments that are functional but emotionally and psychologically indifferent. The fourth and final major reason is the lack of attention to staff well-being and the critical link between staff satisfaction and patient outcomes. The quality of life and health of medical staff directly impacts the quality of care they provide. Stressful and uninspiring environments can lead to fatigue, burnout, and reduced efficiency among staff, which ultimately impacts patient experiences and recovery. Therefore, if a hospital fails to support the well-being of its staff, it cannot be considered truly healing.
In recent decades, as healthcare systems increasingly focus on patient safety, well-being, and speed of recovery, a new architectural approach called evidence-based design (EBD) has emerged. This approach, rooted in empirical research and scientific observation, has gained widespread attention among architects, planners, and healthcare professionals. Evidence-based design involves making design decisions based on credible evidence from studies and data on how the built environment affects health outcomes, stress levels, and overall satisfaction. The main objective of the present research is to explore and promote the use of evidence-based approaches in hospital design, placing the patient at the center of all architectural and functional considerations. This study seeks to demonstrate how the application of EBD principles can improve hospital environments, increase patient satisfaction, accelerate recovery, and create efficient and purposeful healthcare spaces. By focusing on evidence-based design solutions, this research hopes to bridge the gap between clinical practice and human experience. Evidence-based design encourages the creation of hospital environments that not only meet the technical requirements of treatment, but also support family presence and participation, promote psychological well-being, and enhance the performance and resilience of healthcare workers. In addition, evidence-based design aims to improve work productivity, treatment outcomes, economic performance, and overall patient satisfaction, making it an integrated approach that benefits all stakeholders in the healthcare system.
The research methodology of this study follows an analytical-descriptive framework that combines field observations and library studies. Data were also collected through questionnaires distributed to 289 hospitalized patients in four major hospitals in Tehran: Imam Khomeini, Gandhi, Bahman, and Kasra. The collected data were analyzed using ASPECT and SPSS version 26 software programs, which enabled the researcher to identify measurable relationships between environmental qualities and user satisfaction. By analyzing this information, this study provides practical and theoretical ideas for improving hospital design.
Based on the statistical analysis, it can be concluded with 99% confidence that there is a significant difference between the mean performance of the healing environment components among the four hospitals studied. Based on the calculated means, Gandhi Hospital showed the best performance, reflecting its more human-centered and evidence-based design practices. In contrast, Imam Khomeini Hospital showed the lowest performance, likely due to its outdated design model and lack of focus on environmental quality. Bahman Hospital and Kasra Hospital ranked second and third, respectively, with moderate but significant success in implementing healing design aspects. These findings confirm that hospital environments have a direct and measurable impact on patients’ perceptions, recovery experiences, and emotional well-being. They also demonstrate the tangible benefits of integrating evidence-based design principles into healthcare architecture. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that creating a healing hospital is not simply a matter of adding aesthetic elements or cutting-edge medical technology—it requires a holistic understanding of the human experience in space. Through thoughtful, evidence-based, and empathetic design, hospitals can become environments that heal not only the body, but also the mind and spirit.Despite their essential role in providing medical care and saving lives, most hospitals have inadvertently created environments that are often uncomfortable and unpleasant for patients and staff. Patients who are in a vulnerable physical and mental state are often forced to spend their sick days in spaces that lack warmth, comfort, and a sense of calm. Similarly, employees such as doctors, nurses, and other medical personnel are often expected to perform their demanding tasks in stressful and poorly designed environments that do not support their physical and mental health. The main reason for this is the neglect of fundamental human-centered concepts during the architectural design and construction processes of hospitals and healthcare facilities. Given the principle that the desirability of any architectural space is largely determined by the satisfaction of its users; in the case of hospitals, user satisfaction includes patients and staff who interact with the built environment on a daily basis. An individual's satisfaction with a particular environment depends on the extent to which that space meets their personal, social, emotional, and functional needs. When these needs are ignored or inadequately addressed, users experience discomfort, stress, and a general sense of dissatisfaction that can directly impact patient recovery and staff job performance. Several interrelated factors contribute to the negative experiences commonly associated with hospital environments:
The first and perhaps most fundamental issue is the overemphasis on the technological aspects of hospitals during the design process. In most cases, architectural planning is influenced by priorities for treatment modalities, the placement of medical equipment, and the organization of clinical relationships between functional spaces. While these are undoubtedly important, the resulting environments often feel sterile, impersonal, and intimidating, leaving little room for emotional comfort or human connection. The second major issue is the passive role assigned to patients in the hospital environment. Patients are often seen as objects of treatment, not as active participants in their own recovery journey. This passivity limits their sense of control and autonomy, which in turn increases anxiety and reduces the effectiveness of the recovery process. Hospital spatial design rarely empowers patients or gives them the opportunity to positively interact with their surroundings. The third reason for the poor state of many hospital spaces is the existence of fixed, outdated ideas about what a hospital should look and feel like. Decision-makers, policymakers, and designers often rely on traditional, inflexible mental models that resist change, innovation, and adaptation to modern scientific findings about environmental psychology and healing design. This stagnation perpetuates environments that are functional but emotionally and psychologically indifferent. The fourth and final major reason is the lack of attention to staff well-being and the critical link between staff satisfaction and patient outcomes. The quality of life and health of medical staff directly impacts the quality of care they provide. Stressful and uninspiring environments can lead to fatigue, burnout, and reduced efficiency among staff, which ultimately impacts patient experiences and recovery. Therefore, if a hospital fails to support the well-being of its staff, it cannot be considered truly healing.
In recent decades, as healthcare systems increasingly focus on patient safety, well-being, and speed of recovery, a new architectural approach called evidence-based design (EBD) has emerged. This approach, rooted in empirical research and scientific observation, has gained widespread attention among architects, planners, and healthcare professionals. Evidence-based design involves making design decisions based on credible evidence from studies and data on how the built environment affects health outcomes, stress levels, and overall satisfaction. The main objective of the present research is to explore and promote the use of evidence-based approaches in hospital design, placing the patient at the center of all architectural and functional considerations. This study seeks to demonstrate how the application of EBD principles can improve hospital environments, increase patient satisfaction, accelerate recovery, and create efficient and purposeful healthcare spaces. By focusing on evidence-based design solutions, this research hopes to bridge the gap between clinical practice and human experience. Evidence-based design encourages the creation of hospital environments that not only meet the technical requirements of treatment, but also support family presence and participation, promote psychological well-being, and enhance the performance and resilience of healthcare workers. In addition, evidence-based design aims to improve work productivity, treatment outcomes, economic performance, and overall patient satisfaction, making it an integrated approach that benefits all stakeholders in the healthcare system.
The research methodology of this study follows an analytical-descriptive framework that combines field observations and library studies. Data were also collected through questionnaires distributed to 289 hospitalized patients in four major hospitals in Tehran: Imam Khomeini, Gandhi, Bahman, and Kasra. The collected data were analyzed using ASPECT and SPSS version 26 software programs, which enabled the researcher to identify measurable relationships between environmental qualities and user satisfaction. By analyzing this information, this study provides practical and theoretical ideas for improving hospital design.
Based on the statistical analysis, it can be concluded with 99% confidence that there is a significant difference between the mean performance of the healing environment components among the four hospitals studied. Based on the calculated means, Gandhi Hospital showed the best performance, reflecting its more human-centered and evidence-based design practices. In contrast, Imam Khomeini Hospital showed the lowest performance, likely due to its outdated design model and lack of focus on environmental quality. Bahman Hospital and Kasra Hospital ranked second and third, respectively, with moderate but significant success in implementing healing design aspects. These findings confirm that hospital environments have a direct and measurable impact on patients’ perceptions, recovery experiences, and emotional well-being. They also demonstrate the tangible benefits of integrating evidence-based design principles into healthcare architecture. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that creating a healing hospital is not simply a matter of adding aesthetic elements or cutting-edge medical technology—it requires a holistic understanding of the human experience in space. Through thoughtful, evidence-based, and empathetic design, hospitals can become environments that heal not only the body, but also the mind and spirit.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1465_c3125bf72ddee72928c27a0504d112bd.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222Analysis of scholarly documentation on pedagogy of criticism in architecture: A scoping reviewAnalysis of scholarly documentation on pedagogy of criticism in architecture: A scoping review3156146710.30480/aup.2025.5688.2219FAAkbarِDabestani RafsanjaniPhD Candidate in Architecture, School of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, IranSaeedHaghirAssociate Professor, Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, IranSaeidKhaghaniAssistant Professor, Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, IranJournal Article20250122Architectural education continues to organize its studio culture around criticism, yet the field still lacks a shared narrative of what architectural criticism is supposed to accomplish, how it is taught, and how its outcomes are assessed in coherent and transparent ways. In both scholarship and curricula, critique is typically seen as a teaching mechanism for improving work in progress—pinups, roundtables, and juries as moments to guide decisions and refine proposals—rather than as a distinct academic competency that can be named, taught, and assessed. This orientation has reinforced a reliance on inherited traditions and individual teaching styles rather than on research-based models that specify learning outcomes, criteria, and methods. The result is a fragmented pedagogy that obscures the multiple functions of critique in higher education and limits the development of structured, cumulative approaches to teaching it. This study undertakes a scoping review of research conducted in the field of architectural criticism pedagogy to map the field, identify recurring gaps, and develop conceptual and pedagogical frameworks that now guide practice. This review does more than simply cataloguing sources. It reads the literature as evidence for the epistemological place of critique in academia: how the discourse of evaluation produces knowledge, structures participation, and is disseminated as a teachable practice in formal programs. In this sense, the project seeks to contribute to theoretical clarification and practical improvement of teaching strategies.
Following the five-step framework of Arce and O’Malley, this review adopts an applied orientation. Targeted searches in Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect using defined keyword strings yielded 494 records. After removing duplicates and two-level screening against the previous inclusion and exclusion criteria, 24 peer-reviewed studies that directly addressed criticism training were retained for analysis. Data were graphed in Excel and examined through descriptive keyword analysis, primary and secondary theme extraction, conceptual content analysis and thesaurus mapping with VOSviewer to visualize the relationships between terms and themes in the dataset. The findings are remarkably consistent. In most sources, critique is framed as a tool: as a means to improve the quality of design proposals, foster critical thinking, and support decision-making in studio courses. The emphasis is short-term and artifact-focused—what kinds of comments open up better alternatives, how to justify revisions, and where to place judgment in iterative design. In contrast, relatively few studies address critique as an independent, structured, and transferable capability. In those less common narratives, critique involves developing criteria, gathering and weighing evidence, articulating reasoned arguments, managing disagreement, and communicating clear judgments—skills that can be learned, practiced, and evaluated across contexts. This emphasis on critique for design has two predictable consequences. First, without an explicit narrative of criticism as systematic inquiry, students are rarely taught how intuition and taste translate into reasoned judgment. Education often prioritizes providing feedback over cultivating evaluative reasoning and ethical awareness. Second, the lack of stated outcomes and benchmarking guidelines undermines curriculum coherence and hinders comparisons across courses and institutions. Practices remain subject to local custom and individual preferences, limiting transferability and slowing cumulative improvement.
This synthesis suggests several paths for recalibration. Conceptually, theoretical-practical frameworks should present critique as an inquiry based on criteria, evidence, and argument, not as ad hoc interpretation. Pedagogically, programs can stage a clear learning progression—moving from description to analysis, evaluation, and, ultimately, to metacriticism. Early activities can foster careful observation and impartial description of design movements. Intermediate tasks can require analytical comparisons between precedents, alternatives, and constraints. Advanced tasks can require students to make and defend evaluative judgments, accept opposing arguments, and reflect on the norms and values that guide their reasoning. Assessment should align with this path. Rubrics can make criteria visible, separate the quality of reasons from the tone of the presentation, and differentiate design assessment from critical assessment. Short written “critic notes,” annotated design briefs, and short oral defenses can require students to frame claims, present evidence, and clarify reasons. Careful, measured peer review can amplify voices and foster accountability, while instructor feedback can model clear reasoning, responsible dissent, and humane behavior in the studio.
Technology in the reviewed literature appears promising but underdeveloped. Digital platforms can frame asynchronous critique, expand participation, and document how projects and arguments evolve over time; version histories make lines of argument traceable. Learning analytics can help educators regulate engagement and identify patterns of inclusion and silence. Immersive tools—virtual and augmented reality—support shared spatial discussion and situated judgment. AI can help with formative feedback, clustering of themes, and conversational analysis. Used intentionally and transparently, such tools can broaden reach and help align opinions with stated criteria. However, none of these technologies can replace a clear pedagogy or an inclusive studio culture. At the curriculum and faculty development levels, review becomes actionable advice. Programs should articulate learning outcomes for critique alongside design outcomes, map them into sequential courses, and create assignments that make reasoning visible. Formats that distribute authority—rotating juries, conversational critiques, structured rounds, or silent reviews—can moderate power dynamics and reduce unnecessary anxiety. Faculty development should focus on facilitation and questioning strategies, reducing bias, and designing inclusive critique environments that encourage participation, respect diverse forms of knowledge, and support constructive disagreement. Program evaluation should include measures that track the development of critical judgment over time, not just the quality of final artifacts.
The review also identifies research priorities that can generate cumulative insights. Longitudinal studies can examine whether explicit training in criticism leads to sustained gains in evaluative judgment, collaboration, and professional growth among graduates. Experimental and comparative designs can assess the effectiveness of different feedback formats and methods in supporting learning and inclusion. Cross-cultural research can examine how local traditions shape critique and how educational concepts are disseminated across languages and institutions. Ongoing bibliometric monitoring can track shifts in discourse—for example, whether terms like “critical pedagogy” are moving from the margins to the conceptual core as programs formalize education and share outcomes.Architectural education continues to organize its studio culture around criticism, yet the field still lacks a shared narrative of what architectural criticism is supposed to accomplish, how it is taught, and how its outcomes are assessed in coherent and transparent ways. In both scholarship and curricula, critique is typically seen as a teaching mechanism for improving work in progress—pinups, roundtables, and juries as moments to guide decisions and refine proposals—rather than as a distinct academic competency that can be named, taught, and assessed. This orientation has reinforced a reliance on inherited traditions and individual teaching styles rather than on research-based models that specify learning outcomes, criteria, and methods. The result is a fragmented pedagogy that obscures the multiple functions of critique in higher education and limits the development of structured, cumulative approaches to teaching it. This study undertakes a scoping review of research conducted in the field of architectural criticism pedagogy to map the field, identify recurring gaps, and develop conceptual and pedagogical frameworks that now guide practice. This review does more than simply cataloguing sources. It reads the literature as evidence for the epistemological place of critique in academia: how the discourse of evaluation produces knowledge, structures participation, and is disseminated as a teachable practice in formal programs. In this sense, the project seeks to contribute to theoretical clarification and practical improvement of teaching strategies.
Following the five-step framework of Arce and O’Malley, this review adopts an applied orientation. Targeted searches in Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect using defined keyword strings yielded 494 records. After removing duplicates and two-level screening against the previous inclusion and exclusion criteria, 24 peer-reviewed studies that directly addressed criticism training were retained for analysis. Data were graphed in Excel and examined through descriptive keyword analysis, primary and secondary theme extraction, conceptual content analysis and thesaurus mapping with VOSviewer to visualize the relationships between terms and themes in the dataset. The findings are remarkably consistent. In most sources, critique is framed as a tool: as a means to improve the quality of design proposals, foster critical thinking, and support decision-making in studio courses. The emphasis is short-term and artifact-focused—what kinds of comments open up better alternatives, how to justify revisions, and where to place judgment in iterative design. In contrast, relatively few studies address critique as an independent, structured, and transferable capability. In those less common narratives, critique involves developing criteria, gathering and weighing evidence, articulating reasoned arguments, managing disagreement, and communicating clear judgments—skills that can be learned, practiced, and evaluated across contexts. This emphasis on critique for design has two predictable consequences. First, without an explicit narrative of criticism as systematic inquiry, students are rarely taught how intuition and taste translate into reasoned judgment. Education often prioritizes providing feedback over cultivating evaluative reasoning and ethical awareness. Second, the lack of stated outcomes and benchmarking guidelines undermines curriculum coherence and hinders comparisons across courses and institutions. Practices remain subject to local custom and individual preferences, limiting transferability and slowing cumulative improvement.
This synthesis suggests several paths for recalibration. Conceptually, theoretical-practical frameworks should present critique as an inquiry based on criteria, evidence, and argument, not as ad hoc interpretation. Pedagogically, programs can stage a clear learning progression—moving from description to analysis, evaluation, and, ultimately, to metacriticism. Early activities can foster careful observation and impartial description of design movements. Intermediate tasks can require analytical comparisons between precedents, alternatives, and constraints. Advanced tasks can require students to make and defend evaluative judgments, accept opposing arguments, and reflect on the norms and values that guide their reasoning. Assessment should align with this path. Rubrics can make criteria visible, separate the quality of reasons from the tone of the presentation, and differentiate design assessment from critical assessment. Short written “critic notes,” annotated design briefs, and short oral defenses can require students to frame claims, present evidence, and clarify reasons. Careful, measured peer review can amplify voices and foster accountability, while instructor feedback can model clear reasoning, responsible dissent, and humane behavior in the studio.
Technology in the reviewed literature appears promising but underdeveloped. Digital platforms can frame asynchronous critique, expand participation, and document how projects and arguments evolve over time; version histories make lines of argument traceable. Learning analytics can help educators regulate engagement and identify patterns of inclusion and silence. Immersive tools—virtual and augmented reality—support shared spatial discussion and situated judgment. AI can help with formative feedback, clustering of themes, and conversational analysis. Used intentionally and transparently, such tools can broaden reach and help align opinions with stated criteria. However, none of these technologies can replace a clear pedagogy or an inclusive studio culture. At the curriculum and faculty development levels, review becomes actionable advice. Programs should articulate learning outcomes for critique alongside design outcomes, map them into sequential courses, and create assignments that make reasoning visible. Formats that distribute authority—rotating juries, conversational critiques, structured rounds, or silent reviews—can moderate power dynamics and reduce unnecessary anxiety. Faculty development should focus on facilitation and questioning strategies, reducing bias, and designing inclusive critique environments that encourage participation, respect diverse forms of knowledge, and support constructive disagreement. Program evaluation should include measures that track the development of critical judgment over time, not just the quality of final artifacts.
The review also identifies research priorities that can generate cumulative insights. Longitudinal studies can examine whether explicit training in criticism leads to sustained gains in evaluative judgment, collaboration, and professional growth among graduates. Experimental and comparative designs can assess the effectiveness of different feedback formats and methods in supporting learning and inclusion. Cross-cultural research can examine how local traditions shape critique and how educational concepts are disseminated across languages and institutions. Ongoing bibliometric monitoring can track shifts in discourse—for example, whether terms like “critical pedagogy” are moving from the margins to the conceptual core as programs formalize education and share outcomes.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1467_392dd1c580c548157769176055519f59.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222Evaluation of visual perception in the context of the sensory city through artificial intelligence:
A case study of Zand Complex urban spaces, ShirazEvaluation of visual perception in the context of the sensory city through artificial intelligence:
A case study of Zand Complex urban spaces, Shiraz5793146810.30480/aup.2025.6044.2296FAReihanehHadaeghM.A. in Urban Design, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, IranMahsaSholehAssociate Professor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, IranSahandLotfiAssociate Professor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, IranAlirezaSadeghiAssociate Professor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, IranJournal Article20250911Visual perception is an important dimension of urban experience that directly shapes spatial behavior and the sense of place. However, it should be noted that in historical-cultural settings such as the Zand Complex in Shiraz, objectively assessing visual quality and linking it to the lived experiences of citizens poses significant challenges. The lack of integrated frameworks that combine sensory field-based observations with computational analysis limits the capacity to generate evidence-based design strategies. In the broader paradigm of the sensory city, where all senses are simultaneously engaged, vision is particularly influential, mediating security, comfort, aesthetics, identity, and place-making qualities that enhance urban vitality. From a neuroscientific perspective, vision is a system consisting of the retina, optic nerve, and visual cortex, in which rapid eye movements (eye saccade) and binocular vision play key roles in visual processing. In urban environments, the primary estimated components of visual perception include light and brightness, color and facades, and the visual environment, which are further influenced by secondary factors such as natural elements, spatial legibility, and behavior. Adequate lighting affects both perceived security and the duration of a user’s presence, while color conveys symbolic and cultural meanings and influences psychological states such as calm or arousal. Facades and the visual environment, from a video ecology perspective, interact with the physiological and cognitive responses of the eye and brain, and visual environments are classified into three types: “comfortable”, “homogeneous”, and “aggressive” based on their compatibility with visual mechanisms and individual perceptual experience. This allows for a more accurate assessment of visual perception and supports urban design that is aligned with human visual processing.<br />This research develops and tests a framework for assessing visual perception within the framework of the sensory city model and applies it to the urban spaces of the Zand Complex. Specific objectives include redefining the components and processes of visual perception in this context; establishing measurable criteria for recording people's visual experience in urban environments (estimated as components including lighting and illumination, facades and visual environment, color and its harmony, natural elements, legibility and spatial recognition, and finally, people's behavior and activity in urban spaces); assessing the visual and functional performance of the study area using qualitative and quantitative methods; examining the role of artificial intelligence, especially image processing, classification algorithms, and fuzzy logic, in diagnosing and guiding urban design interventions.<br />This study was conducted using a mixed-methods case study design. Data were collected through two primary methods and a complementary method for computing secondary data: (1) field surveys and sensory walks, (2) in-depth interviews, and (3) AI-based image processing and secondary visual data. The study area was divided into five spatial zones (A–E) to enable detailed analysis of environmental and visual features. The photographs and recorded videos were taken using professional cameras and their locations were calibrated to match the natural eye level and visual perception of the users. Field surveys and sensory walks were conducted in two seasons (summer and winter) and in both day and night sessions to ensure reliability and validity. In parallel with the field survey and sensory walks, qualitative data were collected from 33 in-depth interviews. The audio recordings were transcribed through an automated speech-to-text routine, and the resulting texts were coded and analyzed in ATLAS.ti, and AI-based sentiment and content analysis was integrated with image processing outputs to create a comprehensive interpretation of visual perception patterns. And at the end of each section of the two main methods, as well as at the end of each section of their main criteria, quantitative transformation of qualitative data was performed using Likert scale scoring for each spatial area and each criterion. Python-based image processing algorithms and AI-based fuzzy logic were used to extract and process secondary data from visual features. The methodological approach demonstrates how interdisciplinary techniques, combining spatial analysis, sensory ethnography, and computational modeling, can increase the accuracy and depth of urban perception studies.<br />The findings indicate that visual perception in the Zandieh complex in Shiraz is influenced by objective factors (light, color, texture, facade, greenery) and subjective factors (memory and historical identity), and user behavior and presence play a significant role in it. The analysis revealed significant variation in visual perception quality among the studied zones. Zones E and B demonstrated the highest levels of visual appeal and spatial presence. However, some zones such as C and D1 also showed relative desirability. Consequently, these zones demonstrated a more favorable situation compared to other sectors with lower scores. In spatial zones C and D1, short-term or tactical interventions can significantly enhance the visual quality and sensory experience of users. Other zones, however, require more extensive spatial planning and structural redesign to provide a more desirable sensory experience for urban users. Analyses of facades and the visual environment, based on videoecological criteria (Filin, 1997), showed that "aggressive" and "homogeneous" facades were associated with increased visual noise and eye fatigue, acting as factors that reduce the quality of experience. In-depth interviews revealed that factors such as accessibility, social functions, proximity to landmark elements, and diversity of activities can help mitigate these visual deficiencies. Methodologically, the integration of qualitative insights with AI-based image processing has increased the accuracy of visual index assessment and translated the findings into practical design recommendations. The proposed framework therefore bridges the gap between phenomenological research and computational analysis, providing a replicable model for assessing the sensory dimensions of urban space. Beyond the immediate case study, this research contributes to the broader discourse on urban design by highlighting how sense-based methods can be complemented by digital technologies to more effectively assess the quality of place in heritage contexts. This framework not only demonstrates the application of AI to urban perception studies, but also suggests pathways for integrating residents’ experiential knowledge with computational models, thereby enriching participatory planning processes. In doing so, it provides a transferable methodology that can be adapted to other historic urban environments facing similar challenges of conservation, adaptation, and placemaking. Finally, this study emphasizes the necessity of multisensory and evidence-based approaches to designing resilient, legible, and engaging urban spaces that balance cultural continuity with contemporary urban needs while promoting long-term sustainability and civic identity.Visual perception is an important dimension of urban experience that directly shapes spatial behavior and the sense of place. However, it should be noted that in historical-cultural settings such as the Zand Complex in Shiraz, objectively assessing visual quality and linking it to the lived experiences of citizens poses significant challenges. The lack of integrated frameworks that combine sensory field-based observations with computational analysis limits the capacity to generate evidence-based design strategies. In the broader paradigm of the sensory city, where all senses are simultaneously engaged, vision is particularly influential, mediating security, comfort, aesthetics, identity, and place-making qualities that enhance urban vitality. From a neuroscientific perspective, vision is a system consisting of the retina, optic nerve, and visual cortex, in which rapid eye movements (eye saccade) and binocular vision play key roles in visual processing. In urban environments, the primary estimated components of visual perception include light and brightness, color and facades, and the visual environment, which are further influenced by secondary factors such as natural elements, spatial legibility, and behavior. Adequate lighting affects both perceived security and the duration of a user’s presence, while color conveys symbolic and cultural meanings and influences psychological states such as calm or arousal. Facades and the visual environment, from a video ecology perspective, interact with the physiological and cognitive responses of the eye and brain, and visual environments are classified into three types: “comfortable”, “homogeneous”, and “aggressive” based on their compatibility with visual mechanisms and individual perceptual experience. This allows for a more accurate assessment of visual perception and supports urban design that is aligned with human visual processing.<br />This research develops and tests a framework for assessing visual perception within the framework of the sensory city model and applies it to the urban spaces of the Zand Complex. Specific objectives include redefining the components and processes of visual perception in this context; establishing measurable criteria for recording people's visual experience in urban environments (estimated as components including lighting and illumination, facades and visual environment, color and its harmony, natural elements, legibility and spatial recognition, and finally, people's behavior and activity in urban spaces); assessing the visual and functional performance of the study area using qualitative and quantitative methods; examining the role of artificial intelligence, especially image processing, classification algorithms, and fuzzy logic, in diagnosing and guiding urban design interventions.<br />This study was conducted using a mixed-methods case study design. Data were collected through two primary methods and a complementary method for computing secondary data: (1) field surveys and sensory walks, (2) in-depth interviews, and (3) AI-based image processing and secondary visual data. The study area was divided into five spatial zones (A–E) to enable detailed analysis of environmental and visual features. The photographs and recorded videos were taken using professional cameras and their locations were calibrated to match the natural eye level and visual perception of the users. Field surveys and sensory walks were conducted in two seasons (summer and winter) and in both day and night sessions to ensure reliability and validity. In parallel with the field survey and sensory walks, qualitative data were collected from 33 in-depth interviews. The audio recordings were transcribed through an automated speech-to-text routine, and the resulting texts were coded and analyzed in ATLAS.ti, and AI-based sentiment and content analysis was integrated with image processing outputs to create a comprehensive interpretation of visual perception patterns. And at the end of each section of the two main methods, as well as at the end of each section of their main criteria, quantitative transformation of qualitative data was performed using Likert scale scoring for each spatial area and each criterion. Python-based image processing algorithms and AI-based fuzzy logic were used to extract and process secondary data from visual features. The methodological approach demonstrates how interdisciplinary techniques, combining spatial analysis, sensory ethnography, and computational modeling, can increase the accuracy and depth of urban perception studies.<br />The findings indicate that visual perception in the Zandieh complex in Shiraz is influenced by objective factors (light, color, texture, facade, greenery) and subjective factors (memory and historical identity), and user behavior and presence play a significant role in it. The analysis revealed significant variation in visual perception quality among the studied zones. Zones E and B demonstrated the highest levels of visual appeal and spatial presence. However, some zones such as C and D1 also showed relative desirability. Consequently, these zones demonstrated a more favorable situation compared to other sectors with lower scores. In spatial zones C and D1, short-term or tactical interventions can significantly enhance the visual quality and sensory experience of users. Other zones, however, require more extensive spatial planning and structural redesign to provide a more desirable sensory experience for urban users. Analyses of facades and the visual environment, based on videoecological criteria (Filin, 1997), showed that "aggressive" and "homogeneous" facades were associated with increased visual noise and eye fatigue, acting as factors that reduce the quality of experience. In-depth interviews revealed that factors such as accessibility, social functions, proximity to landmark elements, and diversity of activities can help mitigate these visual deficiencies. Methodologically, the integration of qualitative insights with AI-based image processing has increased the accuracy of visual index assessment and translated the findings into practical design recommendations. The proposed framework therefore bridges the gap between phenomenological research and computational analysis, providing a replicable model for assessing the sensory dimensions of urban space. Beyond the immediate case study, this research contributes to the broader discourse on urban design by highlighting how sense-based methods can be complemented by digital technologies to more effectively assess the quality of place in heritage contexts. This framework not only demonstrates the application of AI to urban perception studies, but also suggests pathways for integrating residents’ experiential knowledge with computational models, thereby enriching participatory planning processes. In doing so, it provides a transferable methodology that can be adapted to other historic urban environments facing similar challenges of conservation, adaptation, and placemaking. Finally, this study emphasizes the necessity of multisensory and evidence-based approaches to designing resilient, legible, and engaging urban spaces that balance cultural continuity with contemporary urban needs while promoting long-term sustainability and civic identity.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1468_d6ab5d668e94d884df61fa238a27e171.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222Maritime Transit-Oriented Development (MTOD); A new approach to improving urban performance (Case study: Shahid Haghani passenger port)Maritime Transit-Oriented Development (MTOD); A new approach to improving urban performance (Case study: Shahid Haghani passenger port)95119146910.30480/aup.2025.5989.2287FARazieShakeryM.A. in Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranMojtabaRafieianProfessor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranJournal Article20250807Maritime Transit-Oriented Development (MTOD) has emerged as a comprehensive planning paradigm aimed at strengthening the physical, functional, and socio-economic relationships between coastal cities and their port infrastructure. In many coastal areas, ports operate as major gateways for mobility and economic exchange; however, they often remain isolated from their surrounding urban environments. As global planning trends increasingly emphasize sustainable mobility, integrated land-use–transport planning, and coastal revitalization, MTOD provides a strategic framework for increasing accessibility, promoting mixed-use development, improving pedestrian-oriented environments, and strengthening productive urban–port synergies. In Iran, despite the national importance of maritime transport, passenger ports often have limited integration with their adjacent urban areas. The Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal –the largest passenger gateway in the country– is a prime example of this situation, as it remains physically isolated from the urban fabric of Bandar Abbas and has not fully realized its potential to support social, functional, and economic development. The main issue addressed in this research is the inadequate integration of the terminal with its surrounding urban environment. Poor public transport links, limited pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, lack of mixed-use activities, and minimal interaction between residents, passengers, and port users characterize the current situation. These challenges hinder the terminal from functioning as an active urban node and prevent the city from taking advantage of its proximity to a major maritime transport hub. Consequently, both the city and the port miss out on opportunities for mutual growth, efficient mobility, and coastal revitalization. To address this problem, the main objective of this study is to identify the capacities and potentials of Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal and to present a coordinated set of strategies to improve its integration with Bandar Abbas through the MTOD approach.
This research follows a descriptive-analytical framework with an applied mixed methodology that integrates qualitative and quantitative procedures to ensure a comprehensive assessment. The initial phase involved an extensive review of the MTOD literature, urban–port integration concepts, and international best practices related to port- based urban development. In parallel, national and local planning documents –including transport plans, urban development guidelines, and coastal management policies– were analysed to identify context-specific indicators affecting city–port relations. Field observations were conducted to assess mobility conditions, land-use arrangements, pedestrian flows, urban morphology, and the functional quality of the port environment. Consultations with local authorities, transport experts, and port managers further contextualized the assessment criteria. Based on these inputs, a multi-dimensional indicator framework was developed that includes the physical, social, economic, and transportation dimensions of MTOD.
The indicators included land-use mix, building density, pedestrian connectivity, public transport access, safety perceptions, social interaction opportunities, commercial vitality, waterfront usability, and port-related economic activities. Each indicator was categorized based on its association with the city, port area, or interface between the two. To collect empirical and perception-based data, a detailed questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire consisted of 37 items covering four analytical dimensions: physical–environmental quality, socio-cultural conditions, economic–functional performance, and transportation and connectivity. Each indicator was assessed through two types of questions: satisfaction with the current situation and perceived importance of improving that situation. This dual structure allowed for the identification of key gaps between existing performance and stakeholder expectations and helped prioritize future MTOD interventions. Before final distribution, the questionnaire was pilot-tested with 20 participants to ensure its clarity and internal consistency. Based on feedback, several items were revised. Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha showed overall and specific dimension values above 0.80, indicating high reliability. The final questionnaire was distributed to 120 respondents, including residents living near the terminal, passengers, port staff, transport operators and local business owners. This inclusive sampling approach ensured that the perspectives of community members and port users were adequately represented.
Quantitative processing of the questionnaire data included calculating means, frequencies, and modal values for each indicator. Since this study used fuzzy TOPSIS for multi-criteria decision making, Likert scale responses were transformed into triangular fuzzy numbers (TFN) using a scaled mean fusion representation. This allowed for the integration of subjective perceptions – such as perceived safety, accessibility and economic expectations – alongside objective criteria such as sidewalk width, bus availability and land use patterns in the fuzzy analytical model. To assign objective weights to the indicators, the Shannon entropy method was used. This method quantifies the variability of indicator values across the study area and assigns higher weights to indicators with greater variability. The entropy-derived weights were then combined with the fuzzy data matrix to create a weighted normalized matrix for fuzzy TOPSIS analysis. The fuzzy TOPSIS technique was used to assess the relative alignment of different areas around the terminal with the ideal MTOD conditions. This involved normalizing the fuzzy indices, calculating weighted fuzzy values, determining the fuzzy positive and negative ideal solutions (FPIS and FNIS), calculating the distance of each area to these ideals, and finally calculating the relative closeness coefficient (Ci) for ranking purposes. Ci values provided a measurable basis for comparing the readiness and suitability of regions for MTOD-based development. The findings reveal significant variations across regions in terms of their MTOD potential. Some regions exhibit relatively strong physical or economic capacity but suffer from inadequate connectivity or limited social interaction. Overall, the results confirm that adopting the MTOD framework can significantly improve accessibility, mobility efficiency, pedestrian experience, social interaction, and economic dynamism in the Shahid Haqqani Terminal area. Integrated recommendations include improving pedestrian and bicycle networks, reorganizing and increasing public transportation services, activating coastal areas through mixed-use functions, and implementing coordinated land-use zoning and urban design regulations that support city-port integration. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that MTOD can serve as a powerful tool for promoting sustainable, functional, and resilient relationships between ports and their surrounding cities in Iran. Using entropy weighting, fuzzy TOPSIS analysis, and rigorous questionnaire-based assessment, this research provides a systematic methodological framework that can be replicated in other port cities seeking to strengthen their port-city integration. The proposed strategies provide a clear path for transforming the Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal into a dynamic urban gateway that meaningfully contributes to the broader development goals of Bandar Abbas.Maritime Transit-Oriented Development (MTOD) has emerged as a comprehensive planning paradigm aimed at strengthening the physical, functional, and socio-economic relationships between coastal cities and their port infrastructure. In many coastal areas, ports operate as major gateways for mobility and economic exchange; however, they often remain isolated from their surrounding urban environments. As global planning trends increasingly emphasize sustainable mobility, integrated land-use–transport planning, and coastal revitalization, MTOD provides a strategic framework for increasing accessibility, promoting mixed-use development, improving pedestrian-oriented environments, and strengthening productive urban–port synergies. In Iran, despite the national importance of maritime transport, passenger ports often have limited integration with their adjacent urban areas. The Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal –the largest passenger gateway in the country– is a prime example of this situation, as it remains physically isolated from the urban fabric of Bandar Abbas and has not fully realized its potential to support social, functional, and economic development. The main issue addressed in this research is the inadequate integration of the terminal with its surrounding urban environment. Poor public transport links, limited pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, lack of mixed-use activities, and minimal interaction between residents, passengers, and port users characterize the current situation. These challenges hinder the terminal from functioning as an active urban node and prevent the city from taking advantage of its proximity to a major maritime transport hub. Consequently, both the city and the port miss out on opportunities for mutual growth, efficient mobility, and coastal revitalization. To address this problem, the main objective of this study is to identify the capacities and potentials of Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal and to present a coordinated set of strategies to improve its integration with Bandar Abbas through the MTOD approach.
This research follows a descriptive-analytical framework with an applied mixed methodology that integrates qualitative and quantitative procedures to ensure a comprehensive assessment. The initial phase involved an extensive review of the MTOD literature, urban–port integration concepts, and international best practices related to port- based urban development. In parallel, national and local planning documents –including transport plans, urban development guidelines, and coastal management policies– were analysed to identify context-specific indicators affecting city–port relations. Field observations were conducted to assess mobility conditions, land-use arrangements, pedestrian flows, urban morphology, and the functional quality of the port environment. Consultations with local authorities, transport experts, and port managers further contextualized the assessment criteria. Based on these inputs, a multi-dimensional indicator framework was developed that includes the physical, social, economic, and transportation dimensions of MTOD.
The indicators included land-use mix, building density, pedestrian connectivity, public transport access, safety perceptions, social interaction opportunities, commercial vitality, waterfront usability, and port-related economic activities. Each indicator was categorized based on its association with the city, port area, or interface between the two. To collect empirical and perception-based data, a detailed questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire consisted of 37 items covering four analytical dimensions: physical–environmental quality, socio-cultural conditions, economic–functional performance, and transportation and connectivity. Each indicator was assessed through two types of questions: satisfaction with the current situation and perceived importance of improving that situation. This dual structure allowed for the identification of key gaps between existing performance and stakeholder expectations and helped prioritize future MTOD interventions. Before final distribution, the questionnaire was pilot-tested with 20 participants to ensure its clarity and internal consistency. Based on feedback, several items were revised. Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha showed overall and specific dimension values above 0.80, indicating high reliability. The final questionnaire was distributed to 120 respondents, including residents living near the terminal, passengers, port staff, transport operators and local business owners. This inclusive sampling approach ensured that the perspectives of community members and port users were adequately represented.
Quantitative processing of the questionnaire data included calculating means, frequencies, and modal values for each indicator. Since this study used fuzzy TOPSIS for multi-criteria decision making, Likert scale responses were transformed into triangular fuzzy numbers (TFN) using a scaled mean fusion representation. This allowed for the integration of subjective perceptions – such as perceived safety, accessibility and economic expectations – alongside objective criteria such as sidewalk width, bus availability and land use patterns in the fuzzy analytical model. To assign objective weights to the indicators, the Shannon entropy method was used. This method quantifies the variability of indicator values across the study area and assigns higher weights to indicators with greater variability. The entropy-derived weights were then combined with the fuzzy data matrix to create a weighted normalized matrix for fuzzy TOPSIS analysis. The fuzzy TOPSIS technique was used to assess the relative alignment of different areas around the terminal with the ideal MTOD conditions. This involved normalizing the fuzzy indices, calculating weighted fuzzy values, determining the fuzzy positive and negative ideal solutions (FPIS and FNIS), calculating the distance of each area to these ideals, and finally calculating the relative closeness coefficient (Ci) for ranking purposes. Ci values provided a measurable basis for comparing the readiness and suitability of regions for MTOD-based development. The findings reveal significant variations across regions in terms of their MTOD potential. Some regions exhibit relatively strong physical or economic capacity but suffer from inadequate connectivity or limited social interaction. Overall, the results confirm that adopting the MTOD framework can significantly improve accessibility, mobility efficiency, pedestrian experience, social interaction, and economic dynamism in the Shahid Haqqani Terminal area. Integrated recommendations include improving pedestrian and bicycle networks, reorganizing and increasing public transportation services, activating coastal areas through mixed-use functions, and implementing coordinated land-use zoning and urban design regulations that support city-port integration. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that MTOD can serve as a powerful tool for promoting sustainable, functional, and resilient relationships between ports and their surrounding cities in Iran. Using entropy weighting, fuzzy TOPSIS analysis, and rigorous questionnaire-based assessment, this research provides a systematic methodological framework that can be replicated in other port cities seeking to strengthen their port-city integration. The proposed strategies provide a clear path for transforming the Shahid Haqqani Passenger Terminal into a dynamic urban gateway that meaningfully contributes to the broader development goals of Bandar Abbas.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1469_327f759635a64c07cfc4fab03d301912.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222An analysis of urban development plan regulations influencing housing construction trends in different district of TehranAn analysis of urban development plan regulations influencing housing construction trends in different district of Tehran121151146610.30480/aup.2025.5705.2224FAMasoudRezaeiM.A. in Urban planning, Department of Urban and Regional planning and Design, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranAtoosaAfaghpoorPhD Candidate in Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Urban Planning, College of Fine Arts, Tehran University, Tehran, IranBehzadMalekpourAsl,Assistant Professor, Department of Urban and Regional planning and Design, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranJournal Article20250209Urban development plans constitute essential policy frameworks through which public authorities manage and guide the dynamics of urban growth, particularly in the housing sector. These instruments not only shape the spatial form of cities, but also regulate how housing production responds to demographic pressures, land market behavior, and socio-economic transformations. In the context of rapidly expanding metropolitan regions, such as Tehran, urban development plans are expected to serve both as a strategic vision and a regulatory tool to ensure that growth is aligned with the goals of social equity and affordability.
Over the past two decades, Tehran has experienced significant changes in its housing and construction patterns, largely influenced by the implementation of two major planning documents: the Strategic-Structural Development and Urban Planning Plan of Tehran (Tehran Master Plan) (approved in 2007) and the Detailed Plan (approved in 2012). The aim of these plans was to provide a comprehensive framework for spatial organization of the city, control construction intensity, and balance housing supply with population growth and income distribution. However, the actual results of these planning interventions are still a matter of debate. During the same period, Tehran witnessed a steady increase in housing prices, a sharp increase in the housing affordability index, and increasing inequality in access to adequate housing. The index – measured as the ratio between the cost of purchasing an average 75 square meter residential unit and the average household income – showed that housing affordability had fallen to unprecedented levels. In fact, the market increasingly favored larger, more expensive units rather than stimulating the production of smaller, more affordable housing units in line with household purchasing power. This divergence between policy goals and market behavior raises important questions about the actual effectiveness of Tehran’s urban planning tools in steering the housing market toward inclusive and balanced outcomes. This suggests that despite the formal presence of regulatory systems, the urban development process in Tehran is still largely driven by speculative forces and uncoordinated market dynamics.
This study aims to examine how the regulatory frameworks contained in the Tehran Master Plan affect housing production patterns over time, through a longitudinal impact assessment. Assuming that municipal building permits were issued in accordance with these regulations, this study compares the characteristics of housing construction in two distinct periods: 2006–2011, representing the pre-implementation phase, and 2012–2018, representing the post-implementation phase. This study, by analyzing data of building permits issued in all 22 districts of Tehran Municipality, seeks to reveal temporal and spatial variations in housing production volumes, unit characteristics, and land-use efficiency. The main hypothesis of the research is that while the Detailed Plan may have imposed stricter controls on building activities, its regulatory approach may have unintentionally led to a reduction in housing diversity and affordability.
Methodologically, this research uses a quantitative and longitudinal comparative analysis focusing on two main groups of indicators: Group A includes indicators related to the volume of housing production, including the total number of permits issued, total floor area, and the distribution of residential construction across city districts. Group B includes indicators that reflect the physical and architectural characteristics of the units produced – such as the average floor area per dwelling unit, the ratio of unusable (non-operational) to usable space, and the land-to-unit ratio. Together, these indicators allow for a multidimensional assessment of how planning regulations affect the quantity and qualitative composition of new housing stock. The findings reveal a set of non-rational results. Together, these indicators allow for a multi-dimensional evaluation of how planning regulations have affected both the quantity and the qualitative composition of new housing stock.The findings demonstrate a set of counterintuitive outcomes.
The post-implementation period (2012–2018), which coincided with a housing market downturn, exhibited a significant decline in the volume of housing production in almost all districts. However, rather than improving affordability, this decline was accompanied by a shift towards larger average unit sizes and a reduction in housing type diversity. The dispersion of residential lots – an indicator often associated with small, affordable construction – decreased significantly after 2012, indicating that fewer but larger lots were built. At the same time, the share of non-functional area increased, indicating a design and construction approach that was less responsive to the needs of affordability and everyday functionality. These results suggest that although the detailed plan may have been successful in exerting formal control over building density and land subdivision, it has failed to guide development towards community-responsive housing outcomes. From a policy perspective, these findings have several important implications. First, they indicate that the regulatory frameworks embedded in Tehran’s urban development plans, though intended to rationalize construction and guide urban growth, have not effectively addressed the mismatch between household income levels and housing production. Rather than promoting compact, affordable, and diverse housing patterns, these regulations appear to have reinforced existing inequalities by favoring larger and more luxurious units. Second, empirical evidence highlights the limited adaptive capacity of static planning tools in contexts characterized by volatile market conditions and speculative pressures. The inability of the detailed plan to respond dynamically to market signals highlights the need for a more flexible and demand-sensitive planning approach. Finally, the results emphasize the importance of integrating housing affordability considerations directly into the regulatory logic of urban development plans, rather than treating them as secondary objectives. Second, the empirical evidence highlights the limited adaptive capacity of static planning instruments in contexts characterized by volatile market conditions and speculative pressures. The inability of the Detailed Plan to respond dynamically to market signals underscores the need for a more flexible, demand-sensitive planning approach. Finally, the results emphasize the importance of integrating housing affordability considerations directly into the regulatory logic of urban development programs, rather than treating them as secondary objectives.
In conclusion, this study provides a critical assessment of how the city’s housing production landscape has been shaped by Tehran’s urban planning regulations over a 13-year period. This study shows that despite the existence of comprehensive and detailed master plans, the desired policy outcomes—namely, improving affordability, diversity, and balanced spatial distribution of housing—have not been achieved. The evidence suggests that regulatory interventions alone, when not supported by targeted economic incentives and strong monitoring mechanisms, are insufficient to align housing production with broader urban equity goals. This research recommends a two-pronged strategy for future planning efforts in Tehran and other rapidly urbanizing contexts: (1) Strengthen the integration of housing affordability indicators into land use planning and control systems, and (2) develop adaptive monitoring mechanisms capable of responding to market dynamics in real time.
By providing empirical evidence and conceptual insight, this study contributes to the broader discourse on the interrelationship between urban planning regulations and housing outcomes, demonstrating that the success of urban development programs depends not only on their formal existence, but also on their practical adaptation, inclusiveness, and responsiveness to local socio-economic realities.Urban development plans constitute essential policy frameworks through which public authorities manage and guide the dynamics of urban growth, particularly in the housing sector. These instruments not only shape the spatial form of cities, but also regulate how housing production responds to demographic pressures, land market behavior, and socio-economic transformations. In the context of rapidly expanding metropolitan regions, such as Tehran, urban development plans are expected to serve both as a strategic vision and a regulatory tool to ensure that growth is aligned with the goals of social equity and affordability.
Over the past two decades, Tehran has experienced significant changes in its housing and construction patterns, largely influenced by the implementation of two major planning documents: the Strategic-Structural Development and Urban Planning Plan of Tehran (Tehran Master Plan) (approved in 2007) and the Detailed Plan (approved in 2012). The aim of these plans was to provide a comprehensive framework for spatial organization of the city, control construction intensity, and balance housing supply with population growth and income distribution. However, the actual results of these planning interventions are still a matter of debate. During the same period, Tehran witnessed a steady increase in housing prices, a sharp increase in the housing affordability index, and increasing inequality in access to adequate housing. The index – measured as the ratio between the cost of purchasing an average 75 square meter residential unit and the average household income – showed that housing affordability had fallen to unprecedented levels. In fact, the market increasingly favored larger, more expensive units rather than stimulating the production of smaller, more affordable housing units in line with household purchasing power. This divergence between policy goals and market behavior raises important questions about the actual effectiveness of Tehran’s urban planning tools in steering the housing market toward inclusive and balanced outcomes. This suggests that despite the formal presence of regulatory systems, the urban development process in Tehran is still largely driven by speculative forces and uncoordinated market dynamics.
This study aims to examine how the regulatory frameworks contained in the Tehran Master Plan affect housing production patterns over time, through a longitudinal impact assessment. Assuming that municipal building permits were issued in accordance with these regulations, this study compares the characteristics of housing construction in two distinct periods: 2006–2011, representing the pre-implementation phase, and 2012–2018, representing the post-implementation phase. This study, by analyzing data of building permits issued in all 22 districts of Tehran Municipality, seeks to reveal temporal and spatial variations in housing production volumes, unit characteristics, and land-use efficiency. The main hypothesis of the research is that while the Detailed Plan may have imposed stricter controls on building activities, its regulatory approach may have unintentionally led to a reduction in housing diversity and affordability.
Methodologically, this research uses a quantitative and longitudinal comparative analysis focusing on two main groups of indicators: Group A includes indicators related to the volume of housing production, including the total number of permits issued, total floor area, and the distribution of residential construction across city districts. Group B includes indicators that reflect the physical and architectural characteristics of the units produced – such as the average floor area per dwelling unit, the ratio of unusable (non-operational) to usable space, and the land-to-unit ratio. Together, these indicators allow for a multidimensional assessment of how planning regulations affect the quantity and qualitative composition of new housing stock. The findings reveal a set of non-rational results. Together, these indicators allow for a multi-dimensional evaluation of how planning regulations have affected both the quantity and the qualitative composition of new housing stock.The findings demonstrate a set of counterintuitive outcomes.
The post-implementation period (2012–2018), which coincided with a housing market downturn, exhibited a significant decline in the volume of housing production in almost all districts. However, rather than improving affordability, this decline was accompanied by a shift towards larger average unit sizes and a reduction in housing type diversity. The dispersion of residential lots – an indicator often associated with small, affordable construction – decreased significantly after 2012, indicating that fewer but larger lots were built. At the same time, the share of non-functional area increased, indicating a design and construction approach that was less responsive to the needs of affordability and everyday functionality. These results suggest that although the detailed plan may have been successful in exerting formal control over building density and land subdivision, it has failed to guide development towards community-responsive housing outcomes. From a policy perspective, these findings have several important implications. First, they indicate that the regulatory frameworks embedded in Tehran’s urban development plans, though intended to rationalize construction and guide urban growth, have not effectively addressed the mismatch between household income levels and housing production. Rather than promoting compact, affordable, and diverse housing patterns, these regulations appear to have reinforced existing inequalities by favoring larger and more luxurious units. Second, empirical evidence highlights the limited adaptive capacity of static planning tools in contexts characterized by volatile market conditions and speculative pressures. The inability of the detailed plan to respond dynamically to market signals highlights the need for a more flexible and demand-sensitive planning approach. Finally, the results emphasize the importance of integrating housing affordability considerations directly into the regulatory logic of urban development plans, rather than treating them as secondary objectives. Second, the empirical evidence highlights the limited adaptive capacity of static planning instruments in contexts characterized by volatile market conditions and speculative pressures. The inability of the Detailed Plan to respond dynamically to market signals underscores the need for a more flexible, demand-sensitive planning approach. Finally, the results emphasize the importance of integrating housing affordability considerations directly into the regulatory logic of urban development programs, rather than treating them as secondary objectives.
In conclusion, this study provides a critical assessment of how the city’s housing production landscape has been shaped by Tehran’s urban planning regulations over a 13-year period. This study shows that despite the existence of comprehensive and detailed master plans, the desired policy outcomes—namely, improving affordability, diversity, and balanced spatial distribution of housing—have not been achieved. The evidence suggests that regulatory interventions alone, when not supported by targeted economic incentives and strong monitoring mechanisms, are insufficient to align housing production with broader urban equity goals. This research recommends a two-pronged strategy for future planning efforts in Tehran and other rapidly urbanizing contexts: (1) Strengthen the integration of housing affordability indicators into land use planning and control systems, and (2) develop adaptive monitoring mechanisms capable of responding to market dynamics in real time.
By providing empirical evidence and conceptual insight, this study contributes to the broader discourse on the interrelationship between urban planning regulations and housing outcomes, demonstrating that the success of urban development programs depends not only on their formal existence, but also on their practical adaptation, inclusiveness, and responsiveness to local socio-economic realities.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1466_aeca5ad840a2ab208440e7e9d27341b0.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299184920251222Explaining the concept of urban public spaces with a culture-based approach: A systematic review and qualitative meta-analysisExplaining the concept of urban public spaces with a culture-based approach: A systematic review and qualitative meta-analysis153176147110.30480/aup.2025.5964.2277FAFatemehAghnaei AlanjaghPh.D. Candidate in Islamic Urban Planning, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran0000-0001-9142-042XMohammadTaghiPirbabaeiProfessor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, IranJournal Article20250717The present study aims to conceptualize urban public spaces based on a culture-based approach using a qualitative systematic review and meta-analysis. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework, this research identifies and analyzes 1174 international scientific articles published between 2014 and 2024, of which 40 articles were ultimately selected for in-depth review after careful screening and qualitative assessment. The findings show that public space is more than a physical environment; it is a multidimensional social structure that encompasses cultural, political, and economic meanings, and simultaneously serves as a platform for civic participation, a medium for cultural representation, and an arena for urban governance. The synthesis of selected studies shows that culture acts as a central organizing principle of public space at three interrelated levels: conceptually, culture defines and gives meaning to the idea of publicness; causally, it shapes the social and political processes that occur in spaces; and strategically, it influences design practices, policy formation, and the assessment of spatial quality. By integrating these perspectives, this study provides a three-level analytical framework for understanding the complex relationship between culture and urban public space, thereby addressing a major gap in the fragmented body of existing literature. This review shows that over the past decade, research on the cultural dimensions of public space has expanded significantly, particularly since 2020, reflecting an increasing academic recognition of culture as a key determinant of spatial experience. The geographical distribution of studies is dominated by the United States, followed by China, Spain, and the United Kingdom, reflecting a Western-centric focus and, at the same time, a growing interest in cross-cultural comparisons. In terms of methodology, the majority of studies (75%) use qualitative designs, while only 10% are quantitative and 15% use mixed-method, indicating the dominance of interpretive models and the clear need for complementary empirical measurement tools. From a disciplinary perspective, most research comes from the fields of urban design and planning, although valuable contributions also come from sociology, geography, cultural studies, and political science, highlighting the inherently interdisciplinary nature of the subject.
This meta-analysis categorizes the reviewed works into three thematic categories that align with Norman Blakey’s distinction between the “what,” “why,” and “how” questions: descriptive studies examine what public spaces are and how they are defined in different cultures; explanatory studies examine why spatial behavior and civic life are shaped by cultural contexts; and practical studies examine how cultural values are incorporated into the design and management of urban environments. Combining these categories, the results show that public spaces act as both mirrors and agents of culture: they reflect social norms, beliefs, and identities while simultaneously shaping new patterns of interaction and collective meaning. Conceptually, public spaces act as sites for negotiation between individual and collective expression of identity, providing a window through which relations of power, inclusion, and belonging are revealed. Causally, they act as social infrastructures that foster cohesion, civic participation, and cultural continuity, making them vital to community resilience and democratic life. Strategically, they are tangible arenas for implementing culturally sensitive designs and policy frameworks that address diversity, equity, and sustainability in urban contexts. The reviewed literature also suggests that culturally responsive public space design can enhance social interaction, well-being, and urban livability. However, despite theoretical advances, significant research gaps remain, including the lack of standardized criteria for assessing cultural quality in spatial contexts, the paucity of cross-cultural comparative analyses, and the limited integration of emerging technologies such as GIS-based data analysis and digital ethnography to assess users' spatial experiences.
This study emphasizes that adopting a culture-based approach to public space, by incorporating cultural intelligence into spatial planning and design, contributes to more holistic urban management. The findings collectively suggest that culture and space are mutually constructive: culture provides the interpretive framework through which people understand and inhabit spaces, while public spaces act as spatial intermediaries through which culture is reproduced, discussed, and transformed. This interrelationship emphasizes the need for planners and policymakers to view public spaces not as static physical entities, but as dynamic socio-cultural ecosystems that mediate interactions between different urban groups. The proposed framework therefore positions culture as a fundamental dimension of spatial theory and practice – grounding conceptual definitions of public space, causally linking cultural dynamics to social outcomes, and guiding strategic interventions aimed at spatial inclusion and quality of life. As a result, this meta-analysis not only integrates the scattered research on the cultural basis of urban public spaces but also provides a unified conceptual model that links theory, method, and application. It redefines urban public space as a living, culture-driven system that fosters civic engagement, sustains collective identity, and enhances social resilience. By shifting the framework of culture from a subsidiary variable to a central analytical lens, this study advances both theoretical understanding and practical strategies for designing and managing culturally meaningful public spaces. Ultimately, it argues that in contemporary urban conditions—characterized by globalization, diversity, and technological transformation—culture is not merely a contextual factor but the essential essence through which the publicness of space is created, experienced, and maintained.The present study aims to conceptualize urban public spaces based on a culture-based approach using a qualitative systematic review and meta-analysis. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework, this research identifies and analyzes 1174 international scientific articles published between 2014 and 2024, of which 40 articles were ultimately selected for in-depth review after careful screening and qualitative assessment. The findings show that public space is more than a physical environment; it is a multidimensional social structure that encompasses cultural, political, and economic meanings, and simultaneously serves as a platform for civic participation, a medium for cultural representation, and an arena for urban governance. The synthesis of selected studies shows that culture acts as a central organizing principle of public space at three interrelated levels: conceptually, culture defines and gives meaning to the idea of publicness; causally, it shapes the social and political processes that occur in spaces; and strategically, it influences design practices, policy formation, and the assessment of spatial quality. By integrating these perspectives, this study provides a three-level analytical framework for understanding the complex relationship between culture and urban public space, thereby addressing a major gap in the fragmented body of existing literature. This review shows that over the past decade, research on the cultural dimensions of public space has expanded significantly, particularly since 2020, reflecting an increasing academic recognition of culture as a key determinant of spatial experience. The geographical distribution of studies is dominated by the United States, followed by China, Spain, and the United Kingdom, reflecting a Western-centric focus and, at the same time, a growing interest in cross-cultural comparisons. In terms of methodology, the majority of studies (75%) use qualitative designs, while only 10% are quantitative and 15% use mixed-method, indicating the dominance of interpretive models and the clear need for complementary empirical measurement tools. From a disciplinary perspective, most research comes from the fields of urban design and planning, although valuable contributions also come from sociology, geography, cultural studies, and political science, highlighting the inherently interdisciplinary nature of the subject.
This meta-analysis categorizes the reviewed works into three thematic categories that align with Norman Blakey’s distinction between the “what,” “why,” and “how” questions: descriptive studies examine what public spaces are and how they are defined in different cultures; explanatory studies examine why spatial behavior and civic life are shaped by cultural contexts; and practical studies examine how cultural values are incorporated into the design and management of urban environments. Combining these categories, the results show that public spaces act as both mirrors and agents of culture: they reflect social norms, beliefs, and identities while simultaneously shaping new patterns of interaction and collective meaning. Conceptually, public spaces act as sites for negotiation between individual and collective expression of identity, providing a window through which relations of power, inclusion, and belonging are revealed. Causally, they act as social infrastructures that foster cohesion, civic participation, and cultural continuity, making them vital to community resilience and democratic life. Strategically, they are tangible arenas for implementing culturally sensitive designs and policy frameworks that address diversity, equity, and sustainability in urban contexts. The reviewed literature also suggests that culturally responsive public space design can enhance social interaction, well-being, and urban livability. However, despite theoretical advances, significant research gaps remain, including the lack of standardized criteria for assessing cultural quality in spatial contexts, the paucity of cross-cultural comparative analyses, and the limited integration of emerging technologies such as GIS-based data analysis and digital ethnography to assess users' spatial experiences.
This study emphasizes that adopting a culture-based approach to public space, by incorporating cultural intelligence into spatial planning and design, contributes to more holistic urban management. The findings collectively suggest that culture and space are mutually constructive: culture provides the interpretive framework through which people understand and inhabit spaces, while public spaces act as spatial intermediaries through which culture is reproduced, discussed, and transformed. This interrelationship emphasizes the need for planners and policymakers to view public spaces not as static physical entities, but as dynamic socio-cultural ecosystems that mediate interactions between different urban groups. The proposed framework therefore positions culture as a fundamental dimension of spatial theory and practice – grounding conceptual definitions of public space, causally linking cultural dynamics to social outcomes, and guiding strategic interventions aimed at spatial inclusion and quality of life. As a result, this meta-analysis not only integrates the scattered research on the cultural basis of urban public spaces but also provides a unified conceptual model that links theory, method, and application. It redefines urban public space as a living, culture-driven system that fosters civic engagement, sustains collective identity, and enhances social resilience. By shifting the framework of culture from a subsidiary variable to a central analytical lens, this study advances both theoretical understanding and practical strategies for designing and managing culturally meaningful public spaces. Ultimately, it argues that in contemporary urban conditions—characterized by globalization, diversity, and technological transformation—culture is not merely a contextual factor but the essential essence through which the publicness of space is created, experienced, and maintained.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1471_ff67fc345cce605be042e20257ccc1d6.pdf