Iran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622A critical reinterpretation of thinkers' views on "time and architecture" since the Enlightenment periodA critical reinterpretation of thinkers' views on "time and architecture" since the Enlightenment period427142510.30480/aup.2025.5495.2187FAMahshidKarimiPhD Student, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, IranMohammadrezaRahimzadehAssistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, IranMahmoodArzhmandAssistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran0000-0002-5117-5391ShahramPazoukiProfessor, Department of Religions, The Iranian Institute of Philosophy, Tehran, IranJournal Article20240918The history of architecture indicates that multiple layers of the concept of time exist within this field, with each conception of time leading to a distinct understanding of architecture. Despite its significant role, existing opinions regarding "time and architecture" often appear ambiguous and contradictory. The aim of this research is to clarify these viewpoints and present the diverse dimensions of "time and architecture" in an orderly and comprehensible manner. To achieve this, the study employs thematic analysis through an interpretive approach. This research focuses on published theoretical texts in architecture, with an emphasis on Western sources and their translations. The selection of sources has been purposeful, meaning that efforts were made to cover a diversity of opinions while also drawing from the works of prominent theorists. The findings reveal three approaches to understanding time in architecture, conceptualized as time as "a continuous present," "everyday matters," and "the relationship of presence and absence." These three approaches correspond to distinct understandings of architecture: 1. Architecture as the acceptance of the spirit of the age and divine.'; 2. Architecture as the acceptance of the current and adaptability to the everyday; 3. Architecture as the revelation of the relationship between concealment and unconcealment, the improvement of the present, and the making and display of the differentiation of presence and absence. In the first approach, time is seen as absolute, infinite, and external to the realm of architecture. Although there is a sense of continuity in this approach that links past, present, and future, what often occurs is a predominant emphasis on the "present". The second approach critically addresses the homogeneity and totalitarianism of the first by focusing on the everyday and the natural flow of human life. In its extreme form, the historicist aspect of this approach views human life solely in terms of "change" while neglecting "continuity." Despite their differences, both the first and second approaches share the limitation of being unable to explain untimely moments. In both perspectives, architecture is perceived as submissive to time as an entity that exists in the present. Contrary to these views, the third approach emphasizes that time is not merely defined by presence and critiques this relationship. In this view, architecture is no longer seen as submissive to time; rather, it has the potential to "make," "improve," or "reveal" it. In this third inclination, which advocates for "making" and "improving," architecture is perceived as an active endeavor. Thus, while these two inclinations emphasize diverse aspects of human life, they tend to focus on these aspects only in terms of how they can be improved or how they display the "differences" between past and present in their extreme forms. Meanwhile, the perspective that considers architecture as the revelation of time seeks to explore various dimensions of temporality in both finite and absolute terms. Ultimately, it becomes clear that the problems arising from the extreme tendencies of these various approaches are rooted in a domineering viewpoint held by humanity, as architects and theorists, regarding time.The history of architecture indicates that multiple layers of the concept of time exist within this field, with each conception of time leading to a distinct understanding of architecture. Despite its significant role, existing opinions regarding "time and architecture" often appear ambiguous and contradictory. The aim of this research is to clarify these viewpoints and present the diverse dimensions of "time and architecture" in an orderly and comprehensible manner. To achieve this, the study employs thematic analysis through an interpretive approach. This research focuses on published theoretical texts in architecture, with an emphasis on Western sources and their translations. The selection of sources has been purposeful, meaning that efforts were made to cover a diversity of opinions while also drawing from the works of prominent theorists. The findings reveal three approaches to understanding time in architecture, conceptualized as time as "a continuous present," "everyday matters," and "the relationship of presence and absence." These three approaches correspond to distinct understandings of architecture: 1. Architecture as the acceptance of the spirit of the age and divine.'; 2. Architecture as the acceptance of the current and adaptability to the everyday; 3. Architecture as the revelation of the relationship between concealment and unconcealment, the improvement of the present, and the making and display of the differentiation of presence and absence. In the first approach, time is seen as absolute, infinite, and external to the realm of architecture. Although there is a sense of continuity in this approach that links past, present, and future, what often occurs is a predominant emphasis on the "present". The second approach critically addresses the homogeneity and totalitarianism of the first by focusing on the everyday and the natural flow of human life. In its extreme form, the historicist aspect of this approach views human life solely in terms of "change" while neglecting "continuity." Despite their differences, both the first and second approaches share the limitation of being unable to explain untimely moments. In both perspectives, architecture is perceived as submissive to time as an entity that exists in the present. Contrary to these views, the third approach emphasizes that time is not merely defined by presence and critiques this relationship. In this view, architecture is no longer seen as submissive to time; rather, it has the potential to "make," "improve," or "reveal" it. In this third inclination, which advocates for "making" and "improving," architecture is perceived as an active endeavor. Thus, while these two inclinations emphasize diverse aspects of human life, they tend to focus on these aspects only in terms of how they can be improved or how they display the "differences" between past and present in their extreme forms. Meanwhile, the perspective that considers architecture as the revelation of time seeks to explore various dimensions of temporality in both finite and absolute terms. Ultimately, it becomes clear that the problems arising from the extreme tendencies of these various approaches are rooted in a domineering viewpoint held by humanity, as architects and theorists, regarding time.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1425_e083d14311ace1774069d6d69d2296fd.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622Investigating the effect of green walls on the surrounding microclimate in the autumn season during hot semi-arid climate of ShirazInvestigating the effect of green walls on the surrounding microclimate in the autumn season during hot semi-arid climate of Shiraz2848142210.30480/aup.2025.5553.2195FAElhamShafieePhD Candidate in Architecture, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, IranMohsenFaiziProfessor, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, IranSeyed-AbbasYazdanfarAssociate Professor, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, IranMansourehTahbazProfessor, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IranJournal Article20241028In recent years, the use of green walls has rapidly expanded across various climates worldwide, becoming a significant strategy for improving environmental quality in both indoor and outdoor spaces. This study provides an accurate evaluation of the impact of green walls on environmental parameters and thermal indices at a real scale. While numerous studies have examined the cooling and heating effects of green walls during the summer and winter seasons, fewer have focused on their effects during autumn. Addressing this research gap, this study analyzes the influence of green walls on the surrounding microclimate during the autumn season at different distances from the walls. The green wall and control wall were oriented to the south-southeast, and given the geographical location and the hot semi-arid climate of Shiraz, this façade is exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day, especially during midday hours. In the autumn season, with the reduction in solar radiation intensity compared to summer, the walls remain exposed to direct sunlight and still have significant impacts on surface temperatures and the surrounding environment. These conditions align with the research objectives, which aim to examine the effect of the green wall, exposed to sunlight, on the surrounding microclimate. Field measurements were conducted over 10 consecutive days on a 24-hour basis at various distances from both the green wall and a control bare wall (without vegetation) during autumn. Indices related to thermal sensation (heat index, humidity index, and summer heat sensation index) and thermal stress (lethal heat stress index) were calculated using the Python programming language. The results showed that, on average, the green wall had the greatest impact at a distance of 0.5 meters, reducing thermal indices by up to 2.1°C. By analyzing the findings from the calculation of thermal indices during peak sunlight hours (11 AM to 5 PM), it was determined that the green wall reduces the heat index by an average of 3.1°C, 2.7°C, and 1.9°C at distances of 0, 0.5, and 1 meter from the wall, respectively. Additionally, the humidex index was reduced by 3.9°C, 3.7°C, and 2.3°C at the same distances. Similarly, during peak sunlight hours, the green wall decreased the lethal heat stress index by an average of 1.6°C, 1.5°C, and 0.8°C, and the summer heat sensation index by 3.5°C, 3.4°C, and 2.2°C at distances of 0, 0.5, and 1 meter from the wall. The data obtained from the non-irrigated days of the green wall demonstrated a significant reduction in the wall's effectiveness. This highlights the critical need for an irrigation system and a regular maintenance schedule to sustain the natural processes of the vegetation and ensure the optimal performance of the green wall. Overall, the findings suggest that green walls can significantly improve the surrounding microclimate during the autumn season, particularly during peak radiation hours, in urban environments located in hot semi-arid climates, contributing to an enhanced quality of life in these areas.In recent years, the use of green walls has rapidly expanded across various climates worldwide, becoming a significant strategy for improving environmental quality in both indoor and outdoor spaces. This study provides an accurate evaluation of the impact of green walls on environmental parameters and thermal indices at a real scale. While numerous studies have examined the cooling and heating effects of green walls during the summer and winter seasons, fewer have focused on their effects during autumn. Addressing this research gap, this study analyzes the influence of green walls on the surrounding microclimate during the autumn season at different distances from the walls. The green wall and control wall were oriented to the south-southeast, and given the geographical location and the hot semi-arid climate of Shiraz, this façade is exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day, especially during midday hours. In the autumn season, with the reduction in solar radiation intensity compared to summer, the walls remain exposed to direct sunlight and still have significant impacts on surface temperatures and the surrounding environment. These conditions align with the research objectives, which aim to examine the effect of the green wall, exposed to sunlight, on the surrounding microclimate. Field measurements were conducted over 10 consecutive days on a 24-hour basis at various distances from both the green wall and a control bare wall (without vegetation) during autumn. Indices related to thermal sensation (heat index, humidity index, and summer heat sensation index) and thermal stress (lethal heat stress index) were calculated using the Python programming language. The results showed that, on average, the green wall had the greatest impact at a distance of 0.5 meters, reducing thermal indices by up to 2.1°C. By analyzing the findings from the calculation of thermal indices during peak sunlight hours (11 AM to 5 PM), it was determined that the green wall reduces the heat index by an average of 3.1°C, 2.7°C, and 1.9°C at distances of 0, 0.5, and 1 meter from the wall, respectively. Additionally, the humidex index was reduced by 3.9°C, 3.7°C, and 2.3°C at the same distances. Similarly, during peak sunlight hours, the green wall decreased the lethal heat stress index by an average of 1.6°C, 1.5°C, and 0.8°C, and the summer heat sensation index by 3.5°C, 3.4°C, and 2.2°C at distances of 0, 0.5, and 1 meter from the wall. The data obtained from the non-irrigated days of the green wall demonstrated a significant reduction in the wall's effectiveness. This highlights the critical need for an irrigation system and a regular maintenance schedule to sustain the natural processes of the vegetation and ensure the optimal performance of the green wall. Overall, the findings suggest that green walls can significantly improve the surrounding microclimate during the autumn season, particularly during peak radiation hours, in urban environments located in hot semi-arid climates, contributing to an enhanced quality of life in these areas.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1422_10689c51b2c28902ea5eb5e8e3e3139f.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622Investigating the impact of fatalism on architectural works as seen through non-Iranian travelogues during the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid periodsInvestigating the impact of fatalism on architectural works as seen through non-Iranian travelogues during the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid periods5066142910.30480/aup.2025.5630.2208FANimaِDeimaryPhD Candidate, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, IranAidaMalekiAssociate Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, IranFarhadAkhoundiAssociate Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, IranAhadNejad EbrahimiProfessor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, IranJournal Article20241218The Renaissance and the Enlightenment, spanning from the mid-15th to the mid-18th century, steered the West in a new direction by emphasizing humanism, reasoning, and rationalism. Concurrently, the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavids, at the zenith of their power, welcomed travelers from Europe who began writing travelogues to document their experiences and provide a roadmap for political delegations aiming to alleviate Ottoman pressure through an alliance with Iran. As they entered Iran, they observed a diverse array of issues within Iranian society. The travelers' numerous references to cultural traits reflect an acknowledgment of these aspects, which can foster a new understanding of Iranian architecture through the lens of its cultural history. The architecture of any country arises from how people perceive the world around them and how they respond to the events they encounter throughout their lives. The limited resources and knowledge of the pre-modern world led people to embrace beliefs that, while not providing solutions to crises, could soothe the human mind and soul, making it easier to endure repeated hardships. One such belief is fatalism, which manifests in a variety of words such as destiny, fortune, time, and spinning wheel in everyday Iranian conversations. The presence of such cases in travelogues prompts an inquiry into how fatalism in Iranian culture influenced architecture and what manifestations these effects have on buildings. To address this issue, the current study seeks to find answers by examining the documents of non-Iranian travelogues from the era of the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid dynasties, employing a critical approach and an external perspective. This method, grounded in the cultural history of Iranian architecture, aids in recognizing behaviors that seem normal to individuals within society due to their concealment behind everyday habits. The objective of this research is to explore how fatalism impacted the architectural works of the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid dynasties from the viewpoint of non-Iranian travelers. This study adopts a documentary and interpretative-historical approach, analyzing recurrent statements about fatalism through purposeful sampling from non-Iranian travelogues, with findings derived from grounded theory and mixed methods. The influence of fatalism permeates every facet of the Iranian world, affecting individuals, society, government, and theology. Effects on individuals include tolerance, living at the moment, submission, astrology, and the pursuit of fame; societal aspects involve prioritizing oneself over society and shirking responsibility; in government, there are threats of confiscation, tyranny, abrupt decisions by rulers, forced migration, and border policies; finally, in theology, there is a faith in mortality, a belief in death, and superstitions noted in travelogues. According to travelogues, the repercussions of these factors on architectural works manifest as the demolition of buildings deemed bad omens, the reliance of structures on their creators, gradual deterioration of buildings, neglect of public structures, insufficient investment in architecture, declining building quality, the rise and fall of neighborhoods, damage to public buildings, lack of restoration efforts, and reduced building lifespans, all of which arise from a culture that has endured the weight of fatalism for centuries.The Renaissance and the Enlightenment, spanning from the mid-15th to the mid-18th century, steered the West in a new direction by emphasizing humanism, reasoning, and rationalism. Concurrently, the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavids, at the zenith of their power, welcomed travelers from Europe who began writing travelogues to document their experiences and provide a roadmap for political delegations aiming to alleviate Ottoman pressure through an alliance with Iran. As they entered Iran, they observed a diverse array of issues within Iranian society. The travelers' numerous references to cultural traits reflect an acknowledgment of these aspects, which can foster a new understanding of Iranian architecture through the lens of its cultural history. The architecture of any country arises from how people perceive the world around them and how they respond to the events they encounter throughout their lives. The limited resources and knowledge of the pre-modern world led people to embrace beliefs that, while not providing solutions to crises, could soothe the human mind and soul, making it easier to endure repeated hardships. One such belief is fatalism, which manifests in a variety of words such as destiny, fortune, time, and spinning wheel in everyday Iranian conversations. The presence of such cases in travelogues prompts an inquiry into how fatalism in Iranian culture influenced architecture and what manifestations these effects have on buildings. To address this issue, the current study seeks to find answers by examining the documents of non-Iranian travelogues from the era of the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid dynasties, employing a critical approach and an external perspective. This method, grounded in the cultural history of Iranian architecture, aids in recognizing behaviors that seem normal to individuals within society due to their concealment behind everyday habits. The objective of this research is to explore how fatalism impacted the architectural works of the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid dynasties from the viewpoint of non-Iranian travelers. This study adopts a documentary and interpretative-historical approach, analyzing recurrent statements about fatalism through purposeful sampling from non-Iranian travelogues, with findings derived from grounded theory and mixed methods. The influence of fatalism permeates every facet of the Iranian world, affecting individuals, society, government, and theology. Effects on individuals include tolerance, living at the moment, submission, astrology, and the pursuit of fame; societal aspects involve prioritizing oneself over society and shirking responsibility; in government, there are threats of confiscation, tyranny, abrupt decisions by rulers, forced migration, and border policies; finally, in theology, there is a faith in mortality, a belief in death, and superstitions noted in travelogues. According to travelogues, the repercussions of these factors on architectural works manifest as the demolition of buildings deemed bad omens, the reliance of structures on their creators, gradual deterioration of buildings, neglect of public structures, insufficient investment in architecture, declining building quality, the rise and fall of neighborhoods, damage to public buildings, lack of restoration efforts, and reduced building lifespans, all of which arise from a culture that has endured the weight of fatalism for centuries.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1429_aacbf0428338567f0406603dc97a7df8.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622Study of Cornelis de Bruijn's Engravings from Shiraz during the Safavid eraStudy of Cornelis de Bruijn's Engravings from Shiraz during the Safavid era6887142410.30480/aup.2025.5572.2197FAAliAsadpourAssociate Professor, Department of Iranian Architecture Studies, Faculty of Architecture and Restoration, Shiraz University of Arts, Shiraz, IranJournal Article20241109The condition of Shīrāz during the Safavid era and the details of its suburbs are among the most obscured historical periods in the architectural and urban studies of this city. However, Cornelis de Bruijn (a Dutch traveler and painter) has provided eight unparalleled engravings of Shīrāz in the early 18th century/12th century AH, which possess "realism" and "localism." The aim of this research is to recognize the historical and artistic backgrounds that influenced the creation of these engravings, and to re-read and analyze them; it attempts to identify the components of the historical-natural landscape of Shīrāz and the relationship between text and image in them, and to reveal the new data available to them. The research method is historical. Although the travelogue in English (1737) was the main source of this research, another version in French (1718) was consulted to verify names, check figures, and clarify certain details. The current research is not a comparative study; however, referring to other travel writers of that era who visited Shīrāz has been influential in gaining a deeper understanding and analysis of Bruijn's works, and these have been utilized when necessary. The findings indicate a) the influence of the artistic and mental context of Bruijn on their creation. They also represent the synthesis of "city" and "suburb" or "ruin" and "garden," which reinterprets the historical and natural landscape of Shīrāz under the title of antiquity and age in "detailed and panorama views." Bruijn was very precise and sensitive in selecting the location and angle for engraving her works. The desire for ruins in his engravings stems from a longing for the lost grandeur, historicity, decay, and the transient. Although Bruijn is referred to as a "meticulous and realistic Renaissance-trained collector and painter" with a critical spirit who had a passionate drive to discover the unknown and gain renown, he did not delve into the social life, customs, and beliefs of the people in his travelogue. In his engravings, particularly those of Shīrāz, there is a certain reflection of the Western perception of the East, which is characterized by a sense of lassitude and indifference. b) The travelogue text (details, dimensions, and proportions) complements the engravings. c) The engravings can be divided into two categories: "representing architectural works and historical landscapes" and "representing the landscape of the city and suburbs," encompassing data from architectural works and the structure of suburbs (historical landscape). The precise placement of city buildings, the distinction in the shape of domes, the presence of minarets, the emphasis on tombs (Sheikh Zain al-Din and Sheikh Nūrbakhsh), gardens (Firdaws), and architectural works and ruins surrounding the city are seen in fewer engravings from the Safavid era of Shīrāz. Despite this, some important buildings have been overlooked; the delightful garden, the Hāfeziyeh, and the Bāgh-e-Takht Garden are among the most significant. The Bruijn data can be used as a document in studies of the Safavid era in Shīrāz. Future research can examine these data from the perspective of "historical geography" and the "space-time" angle, and proceed to critique and analyze them.The condition of Shīrāz during the Safavid era and the details of its suburbs are among the most obscured historical periods in the architectural and urban studies of this city. However, Cornelis de Bruijn (a Dutch traveler and painter) has provided eight unparalleled engravings of Shīrāz in the early 18th century/12th century AH, which possess "realism" and "localism." The aim of this research is to recognize the historical and artistic backgrounds that influenced the creation of these engravings, and to re-read and analyze them; it attempts to identify the components of the historical-natural landscape of Shīrāz and the relationship between text and image in them, and to reveal the new data available to them. The research method is historical. Although the travelogue in English (1737) was the main source of this research, another version in French (1718) was consulted to verify names, check figures, and clarify certain details. The current research is not a comparative study; however, referring to other travel writers of that era who visited Shīrāz has been influential in gaining a deeper understanding and analysis of Bruijn's works, and these have been utilized when necessary. The findings indicate a) the influence of the artistic and mental context of Bruijn on their creation. They also represent the synthesis of "city" and "suburb" or "ruin" and "garden," which reinterprets the historical and natural landscape of Shīrāz under the title of antiquity and age in "detailed and panorama views." Bruijn was very precise and sensitive in selecting the location and angle for engraving her works. The desire for ruins in his engravings stems from a longing for the lost grandeur, historicity, decay, and the transient. Although Bruijn is referred to as a "meticulous and realistic Renaissance-trained collector and painter" with a critical spirit who had a passionate drive to discover the unknown and gain renown, he did not delve into the social life, customs, and beliefs of the people in his travelogue. In his engravings, particularly those of Shīrāz, there is a certain reflection of the Western perception of the East, which is characterized by a sense of lassitude and indifference. b) The travelogue text (details, dimensions, and proportions) complements the engravings. c) The engravings can be divided into two categories: "representing architectural works and historical landscapes" and "representing the landscape of the city and suburbs," encompassing data from architectural works and the structure of suburbs (historical landscape). The precise placement of city buildings, the distinction in the shape of domes, the presence of minarets, the emphasis on tombs (Sheikh Zain al-Din and Sheikh Nūrbakhsh), gardens (Firdaws), and architectural works and ruins surrounding the city are seen in fewer engravings from the Safavid era of Shīrāz. Despite this, some important buildings have been overlooked; the delightful garden, the Hāfeziyeh, and the Bāgh-e-Takht Garden are among the most significant. The Bruijn data can be used as a document in studies of the Safavid era in Shīrāz. Future research can examine these data from the perspective of "historical geography" and the "space-time" angle, and proceed to critique and analyze them.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1424_aaed08478a6d31d4206ad97ab805c659.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622Analysis of intervention experiences in military heritage based on the criteria of ICOMOS and ICOFORT; Case studies: 25 international experiencesAnalysis of intervention experiences in military heritage based on the criteria of ICOMOS and ICOFORT; Case studies: 25 international experiences88128142810.30480/aup.2025.5557.2196FAParmissZanitchkhahPhD Candidate, Department of Architectural and Urban Conservation, Faculty of Conservation & Restoration, Iran University of Art, Tehran, IranAlirezaRazeghiAssociate Professor, Department of Architectural and Urban Conservation, Faculty of Conservation & Restoration, Iran University of Art, Tehran, IranJournal Article20241029One of the emerging branches of architectural and urban heritage is "Military Heritage," which has recently gained recognition in the conservation literature. Its official acceptance is attributed to the establishment of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Fortifications and Military Heritage, or ICOFORT, by ICOMOS in 2005. Subsequently, there arose a need to focus on this kind of cultural heritage, develop conservation strategies, and acknowledge the tangible and intangible values linked to different forms of military heritage, ranging from ancient forms to contemporary ones. This qualitative research aims at "assessing practices regarding conservation interventions in military heritage in accordance with predefined criteria" and adopts a comprehensive view based on the interpretive paradigm to answer its two main questions, as follows: First Question: What are the recognizable approaches for conservation intervention in military heritage in global experiences? Second Question: How well do these approaches comply with the criteria considered in the upstream documents of ICOFORT and ICOMOS regarding military heritage conservation? To reply to its first question, the following research seeks criteria for conservation interventions in military heritage through content analysis of the “Draft ICOFORT Charter on Fortifications and Related Heritage; Guidelines for Protection, Conservation and Interpretation” and “ICOMOS Guidelines on Fortifications and Military Heritage,” the two related documents regarding military heritage conservation, to evaluate the methods of military heritage conservation in the selected case studies. To find an answer to the second question of this research, after selecting and introducing 26 international experiences in the conservation of military heritage, the research that has been done on these case studies is reanalyzed using the meta-analysis method. In this step, in addition to the categorization and explanation of general approaches to conservation interventions in military heritage in these examples, some case approaches that have been considered in one or more specific experiences are extracted. Afterwards, the compliance quality of the extracted criteria with the approaches to military heritage conservation in these global experiences is assessed. Research findings indicate that the general approaches for military heritage conservation in these international experiences are related to the scale of these structures and focus on particular criteria, while others have been somewhat neglected.Specific approaches in every single experience can also be taken into account. To achieve the desired comprehensive approach that considers all aspects and conservation criteria while respecting the unique characteristics of each military heritage structure, it is necessary to extract tangible and intangible values of a military heritage structure with a holistic approach, by an interdisciplinary team of appropriately qualified professionals with specific knowledge and experience in similar fortifications and military heritage. This process is considered the initial systematic step in conservation interventions. The choice between conservation techniques should be weighed on a case-by-case basis, and preference given to those that are least invasive and most compatible with heritage values, considering safety and durability requirements based on the "ICOMOS Charter of Principles for the Analysis, Conservation, and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage."One of the emerging branches of architectural and urban heritage is "Military Heritage," which has recently gained recognition in the conservation literature. Its official acceptance is attributed to the establishment of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Fortifications and Military Heritage, or ICOFORT, by ICOMOS in 2005. Subsequently, there arose a need to focus on this kind of cultural heritage, develop conservation strategies, and acknowledge the tangible and intangible values linked to different forms of military heritage, ranging from ancient forms to contemporary ones. This qualitative research aims at "assessing practices regarding conservation interventions in military heritage in accordance with predefined criteria" and adopts a comprehensive view based on the interpretive paradigm to answer its two main questions, as follows: First Question: What are the recognizable approaches for conservation intervention in military heritage in global experiences? Second Question: How well do these approaches comply with the criteria considered in the upstream documents of ICOFORT and ICOMOS regarding military heritage conservation? To reply to its first question, the following research seeks criteria for conservation interventions in military heritage through content analysis of the “Draft ICOFORT Charter on Fortifications and Related Heritage; Guidelines for Protection, Conservation and Interpretation” and “ICOMOS Guidelines on Fortifications and Military Heritage,” the two related documents regarding military heritage conservation, to evaluate the methods of military heritage conservation in the selected case studies. To find an answer to the second question of this research, after selecting and introducing 26 international experiences in the conservation of military heritage, the research that has been done on these case studies is reanalyzed using the meta-analysis method. In this step, in addition to the categorization and explanation of general approaches to conservation interventions in military heritage in these examples, some case approaches that have been considered in one or more specific experiences are extracted. Afterwards, the compliance quality of the extracted criteria with the approaches to military heritage conservation in these global experiences is assessed. Research findings indicate that the general approaches for military heritage conservation in these international experiences are related to the scale of these structures and focus on particular criteria, while others have been somewhat neglected.Specific approaches in every single experience can also be taken into account. To achieve the desired comprehensive approach that considers all aspects and conservation criteria while respecting the unique characteristics of each military heritage structure, it is necessary to extract tangible and intangible values of a military heritage structure with a holistic approach, by an interdisciplinary team of appropriately qualified professionals with specific knowledge and experience in similar fortifications and military heritage. This process is considered the initial systematic step in conservation interventions. The choice between conservation techniques should be weighed on a case-by-case basis, and preference given to those that are least invasive and most compatible with heritage values, considering safety and durability requirements based on the "ICOMOS Charter of Principles for the Analysis, Conservation, and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage."https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1428_9275c3237608c755a53705f371aa3ccb.pdfIran University of ArtJournal of Architecture and Urban Planning2717-1299174720250622The social geography of resident groups in spontaneous urban settlements; Case study: A comparison between Dowlatabad neighborhood in Kermanshah and Naysar in SanandajThe social geography of resident groups in spontaneous urban settlements; Case study: A comparison between Dowlatabad neighborhood in Kermanshah and Naysar in Sanandaj130160142710.30480/aup.2025.5404.2170FAKasraAshouriPhD Candidate, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Kurdistan University, Sanandaj, IranKayoumarsIrandoostProfessor, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Kurdistan University, Sanandaj, Iran0000-0001-5812-8574Journal Article20240723The differing value associated with the concepts of formality and informality has led to the creation of a geography of inequality in spatial-social values, which is reproduced within the emerging space of capitalist power and planning. In this poverty-reproducing, citizen- excluding structure, certain social groups are marginalized, each for different reasons. This study, therefore, seeks to answer the following question: which social groups reside in the informal urban settlements of Dowlatabad in Kermanshah and Naysar in Sanandaj? Can these individuals be categorized into similar groups? To address these questions, a combination of quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (critical ethnography) methods was employed to facilitate a more detailed identification of the resident groups. The typology developed in this study is based on two perspectives: the structural-institutional and the constructivist-attitudinal, both derived from four process-based approaches —Turner's views on housing processes, Stokes' motives for residence, Mangin's modes of settlement, and Yiftachel and Roy's perspectives on social origin. The findings indicate that, based on the structural-institutional and constructivist-attitudinal perspectives, six distinct groups with different objectives reside in the neighborhoods of Dowlatabad in Kermanshah and the detached urban area of Naysar in Sanandaj. Crucially, there are essential difference between these six demographic groups within each neighborhood. In Dowlatabad, factors such as war, earthquakes, cohabitation with fellow citizens (immigrants from small cities within the province), low land and housing prices, and favorable labor market conditions have contributed to the formation of various demographic groups. These conditions differ in Naysar, which initially had a rural core. Furthermore, there are clear differences between the first, second, and third generations in these neighborhoods, particularly regarding their sense of despair and feeling of being "second-class citizens," especially among the second and third generations. From this perspective, it can be argued that the primary motivation for most residents in settlements like Dowlatabad and Naysar is the basic need for shelter and housing —needs that the urban planning and housing provision systems fail to address. The first, second, and third income deciles, who make up a significant portion of the urban poor, lack the income to purchase formal land, cannot afford the ancillary costs of housing (such as municipal fees and engineering permits), and are unable to cover land preparation and utility costs. Therefore, their settlement arises from economic rationality, calculated decision-making, and logical choices. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that similar social groups are likely to reside in most informal urban settlements across Iran. However, depending on the specific characteristics and conditions of the region, city, and settlement, differences also exist among resident groups. Ultimately, it can be argued that we are currently witnessing the emergence of a "new social geography of urban informality," in which diverse demographic groups with varied objectives and conditions are being reproduced across three spatial layers: stabilized areas, detached urban areas, and surrounding villages within cities.The differing value associated with the concepts of formality and informality has led to the creation of a geography of inequality in spatial-social values, which is reproduced within the emerging space of capitalist power and planning. In this poverty-reproducing, citizen- excluding structure, certain social groups are marginalized, each for different reasons. This study, therefore, seeks to answer the following question: which social groups reside in the informal urban settlements of Dowlatabad in Kermanshah and Naysar in Sanandaj? Can these individuals be categorized into similar groups? To address these questions, a combination of quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (critical ethnography) methods was employed to facilitate a more detailed identification of the resident groups. The typology developed in this study is based on two perspectives: the structural-institutional and the constructivist-attitudinal, both derived from four process-based approaches —Turner's views on housing processes, Stokes' motives for residence, Mangin's modes of settlement, and Yiftachel and Roy's perspectives on social origin. The findings indicate that, based on the structural-institutional and constructivist-attitudinal perspectives, six distinct groups with different objectives reside in the neighborhoods of Dowlatabad in Kermanshah and the detached urban area of Naysar in Sanandaj. Crucially, there are essential difference between these six demographic groups within each neighborhood. In Dowlatabad, factors such as war, earthquakes, cohabitation with fellow citizens (immigrants from small cities within the province), low land and housing prices, and favorable labor market conditions have contributed to the formation of various demographic groups. These conditions differ in Naysar, which initially had a rural core. Furthermore, there are clear differences between the first, second, and third generations in these neighborhoods, particularly regarding their sense of despair and feeling of being "second-class citizens," especially among the second and third generations. From this perspective, it can be argued that the primary motivation for most residents in settlements like Dowlatabad and Naysar is the basic need for shelter and housing —needs that the urban planning and housing provision systems fail to address. The first, second, and third income deciles, who make up a significant portion of the urban poor, lack the income to purchase formal land, cannot afford the ancillary costs of housing (such as municipal fees and engineering permits), and are unable to cover land preparation and utility costs. Therefore, their settlement arises from economic rationality, calculated decision-making, and logical choices. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that similar social groups are likely to reside in most informal urban settlements across Iran. However, depending on the specific characteristics and conditions of the region, city, and settlement, differences also exist among resident groups. Ultimately, it can be argued that we are currently witnessing the emergence of a "new social geography of urban informality," in which diverse demographic groups with varied objectives and conditions are being reproduced across three spatial layers: stabilized areas, detached urban areas, and surrounding villages within cities.https://aup.journal.art.ac.ir/article_1427_2b4124a29b1bde35354b38942446e216.pdf